•Even 22 percentage points increase in retention was achieved by precompaction.•Only small increase in pressure was needed to compensate the caused capacity decrease.•Cellulose membrane structure ...effects significantly on irreversibility of compaction.•Compaction of all the tested membranes was not affected by temperature increase.
Compaction of a polymeric membrane results in a denser membrane structure with increased hydrodynamic resistance, which may positively affect the retention factor. This raises the question of whether membrane compaction could be a cheap and simple way to enhance membrane performance. In this study, compaction and retention data of four different commercial polyethersulphone and regenerated cellulose membranes were examined to gain insight into how membrane retentions could be improved with compaction at different temperatures. Although there was enormous variation in both the reversible and irreversible compaction of the membranes tested, retention in all membranes clearly increased after compression under 7bar and 50 or 70°C conditions. For instance, polyethylene glycol (PEG) (8kg/mol) retention of a 30kg/mol membrane increased even by 22 percentage points, up to 97%. This study demonstrates that it is possible to easily modify retention values of commercially available membranes, thereby increasing their usability in different applications.
•A novel UTDR tool is used in on-line monitoring of membrane compaction.•Significant differences were found in compaction tendency of different membranes.•It seems that both the selective skin layer ...and the layers below the skin layer compact.
This study evaluates differences in reversible (after relaxation) and irreversible compaction and the effect of compaction on the performance of three different ultrafiltration membranes. The evaluation is based on results from both off-line and on-line measurements of compaction. The on-line measurements were done with an ultrasonic time-domain reflectrometry (UTDR) tool with improved resolution compared to tools used in earlier studies.
The results reveal that the regenerated cellulose membrane compacted significantly more than the tested polyethersulphone membranes. This dissimilarity originates from the different membrane materials used and from significant differences in the membrane structures. It is also found that measurements of membrane compaction, whether made on-line or off-line, are not predictive for membrane performance. For instance, compaction of the UH030 membrane was negligible but its permeability decrease and retention increase due to the compaction were significant. Compaction decreased the cut-off values of the 30kDa membranes to lower than 8kDa. The results thus indicate that the skin layers of the membranes compact significantly causing remarkable changes in membrane performance. Thickness changes occurring in the scale of skin layer thicknesses are out of the resolution limits of methods thus far available for monitoring of membrane compaction in real-time. Real-time measured information on compaction phenomena is further needed to be able to distinguish flux decrease caused by concentration polarization and the effects of reversible compaction.
Cadmium telluride is a favorable material for X-ray detection as it has an outstanding characteristic for room temperature operation. It is a high-Z material with excellent photon radiation ...absorption properties. However, CdTe single crystals may include a large number of extended crystallographic defects, such as grain boundaries, twins, and tellurium (Te) inclusions, which can have an impact on detector performance. A Technology Computer Aided Design (TCAD) local defect model has been developed to investigate the effects of local defects on charge collection efficiency (CCE). We studied a 1 mm thick Schottky-type CdTe radiation detector with transient-current technique by using a red laser at room temperature. By raster scanning the detector surface we were able to study signal shaping within the bulk, and to locate surface defects by observing their impact on the CCE. In this paper we present our TCAD model with localized defect, and compare the simulation results to TCT measurements. In the model an inclusion with a diameter of 10 μm was assumed. The center of the defect was positioned at 6 μm distance from the surface. We show that the defect has a notable effect on current transients, which in turn affect the CCE of the CdTe detector. The simulated charge collection at the position of the defect decreases by 80 % in comparison to the defect-free case. The simulations show that the defects give a characteristic shape to TCT signal. This can further be used to detect defects in CdTe detectors and to estimate the overall defect density in the material.
A front-end readout chip VFAT3 was designed for the muon detector gas electron multipliers (GEM). GEMs were installed at the Compact Muon Solenoid (CMS) experiment of the Large Hadron Collider (LHC) ...at CERN for the high luminosity upgrade. The design of the VFAT3 uses 790 analog and 172 digital blocks which are highly integrated, thus it is crucial to ensure that the different blocks work together and the chip works as a whole. Mixed signal simulation methods were used to verify the high level functionality. Trigger latencies of 125, 150, 175 and 225 ns were found for front-end peaking times of 25, 50, 75 and 100 ns, respectively. The maximum trigger rate for reading out standard data packets was found to be 1.7 MHz. Results of the VFAT3 high level verification are presented and the simulation methods described.
The benefits of pixelated planar direct conversion semiconductor radiation detectors comprising a thick fully depleted substrate are that they offer low crosstalk, small output capacitance, and that ...the planar configuration simplifies manufacturing. In order to provide high quantum efficiency for high energy X-rays and Gamma-rays such a radiation detector should be as thick as possible. The maximum thickness and thus the maximum quantum efficiency has been limited by the substrate doping concentration: the lower the substrate doping the thicker the detector can be before reaching the semiconductor material's electric breakdown field. Thick direct conversion semiconductor detectors comprising vertical three-dimensional electrodes protruding through the substrate have been previously proposed by Sherwood Parker in order to promote rapid detection of radiation. An additional advantage of these detectors is that their thickness is not limited by the substrate doping, i.e., the size of the maximum electric field value in the detector does not depend on detector thickness. However, the thicker the substrate of such three dimensional detectors is the larger the output capacitance is and thus the larger the output noise is. In the novel direct conversion pixelated radiation detector utilizing a novel three dimensional semiconductor architecture, which is proposed in this work, the detector thickness is not limited by the substrate doping and the output capacitance is small and does not depend on the detector thickness. In addition, by incorporating an additional node to the novel three-dimensional semiconductor architecture it can be utilized as a high voltage transistor that can deliver current across high voltages. Furthermore, it is possible to connect a voltage difference of any size to the proposed novel three dimensional semiconductor architecture provided that it is thick enough-this is a novel feature that has not been previously possible for semiconductor components. Yet another feature of the novel three dimensional semiconductor architecture is that despite the thick substrate it can also be efficiently cooled.
The Silicon Drift Detectors (SDDs) have replaced simple diodes in demanding X-ray fluorescence applications like in element analysers capable of detecting light elements. The reason for this is that ...with similar collection area the SDDs have a much smaller output capacitance than diodes due to a much smaller anode size. Thus the SDDs provide much better Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR) at smaller signal levels than diodes. The small capacitance in SDDs is achieved by placing concentric rings around a miniature sized anode. These rings are biased such that inside the SDD's fully depleted bulk a radial electric field component is established guiding signal charges towards the anode. Problems complicating the design of SDDs are positive oxide charge and interface dark noise. The latter is caused when leakage current generated at depleted interfaces mixes with the signal charge. It has been shown previously that by utilizing a chain of resistors connected to SDD's p+ drift rings and intermediate n+ rings both of these problems can be solved but the resistor chain arrangement requires an additional process step, which may not be standardly available. The interface generated dark noise and the requirement for a resistor chain can be removed by implementing suitable gaps in the p+ rings or with a resistive spiral as well as by implementing an additional anode for the collection of interface leakage current. Such SDDs are, however, vulnerable to accumulation of positive oxide charge complicating the manufacturing and likely reducing the effective lifetime of the detector.We present an SDD design comprising a novel ring arrangement preventing the formation of interface dark noise, being resistant to positive oxide charge, and removing the need for a resistor chain. In this work the design and operation principle of the proposed SDD is presented. The operation of the proposed SDD has been evaluated on TCAD with cylindrically symmetric 3D process and device simulations.
We have developed a novel detector concept based on Modified Internal Gate Field Effect Transistor (MIGFET) wherein a buried Modified Internal Gate (MIG) is implanted underneath a channel of a FET. ...In between the MIG and the channel of the FET there is a depleted semiconductor material forming a potential barrier between charges in the channel and similar type signal charges located in the MIG. The signal charges in the MIG have a measurable effect on the conductance of the channel. In this paper a double MIGFET pixel is investigated comprising two MIGFETs. By transferring the signal charges between the two MIGs Non-Destructive Correlated Double Sampling Readout (NDCDSR) is enabled. The proposed MIG radiation detector suits particularly well for low-light-level imaging, X-ray spectroscopy, as well as synchrotron and X-ray Free Electron Laser (XFEL) facilities. The reason for the excellent X-ray detection performance stems from the fact that interface related issues can be considerably mitigated since interface generated dark noise can be completely avoided and interface generated 1/f and Random Telegraph Signal (RTS) noise can be considerably reduced due to a deep buried channel readout configuration. Electrical parameters of the double MIGFET pixel have been evaluated by 3D TCAD simulation study. Simulation results show the absence of interface generated dark noise, significantly reduced interface generated 1/f and RTS noise, well performing NDCDSR operation, and blooming protection due to an inherent vertical anti-blooming structure. In addition, the backside illuminated thick fully depleted pixel design provides a homogeneous radiation entry window, low crosstalk due to lack of diffusion, and good quantum efficiency for low energy X-rays and NIR light. These facts result in excellent Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR) and very low crosstalk enabling thus excellent X-ray energy and spatial resolution. The simulation demonstrates the charge to current conversion gain for source current readout to be 1.4 nA/e.
In pixelated silicon radiation detectors that are utilized for the detection of UV, visible, and in particular Near Infra-Red (NIR) light it is desirable to utilize a relatively thick fully depleted ...Back-Side Illuminated (BSI) detector design providing 100% Fill Factor (FF), low Cross-Talk (CT), and high Quantum Efficiency (QE). The optimal thickness of such detectors is typically less than 300mum and above 40mum and thus it is more or less mandatory to thin the detector wafer from the backside after the front side of the detector has been processed and before a conductive layer is formed on the backside. A TAIKO thinning process is optimal for such a thickness range since neither a support substrate on the front side nor lithographic steps on the backside are required. The conductive backside layer should, however, be homogenous throughout the wafer and it should be biased from the front side of the detector. In order to provide good QE for blue and UV light the conductive backside layer should be of opposite doping type than the substrate. The problem with a homogeneous backside layer being of opposite doping type than the substrate is that a lot of leakage current is typically generated at the sawed chip edges, which may increase the dark noise and the power consumption. These problems are substantially mitigated with a proposed detector edge arrangement which 2D simulation results are presented in this paper.
Testing of manufacturing faults of CMS RPC link boards Korpela, A.; Karjalainen, A.; Tuuva, T.
Nuclear instruments & methods in physics research. Section A, Accelerators, spectrometers, detectors and associated equipment,
05/2010, Letnik:
617, Številka:
1
Journal Article
Recenzirano
A test board suitable for mass testing of the production of CMS RPC link boards has been developed. The test board provides a fast first-level pass of the link boards at the production facility. This ...ensures that link boards with basic errors are not sent further to the long-term tests at the laboratory. A Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) circuit is used to scan connections and shorts of the board traces. The test board functioned well and provided a fast, less than 1
min per board, test at production.
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