Following our first detection reported in Izotov et al., we present the detection of Lyman continuum (LyC) radiation of four other compact star-forming galaxies observed with the Cosmic Origins ...Spectrograph (COS) onboard the Hubble Space Telescope. These galaxies, at redshifts of z ∼ 0.3, are characterized by high emission-line flux ratios O iii λ5007/O ii λ3727 ≳ 5. The escape fractions of the LyC radiation f
esc(LyC) in these galaxies are in the range of ∼6–13 per cent, the highest values found so far in low-redshift star-forming galaxies. Narrow double-peaked Ly α emission lines are detected in the spectra of all four galaxies, compatible with predictions for LyC leakers. We find escape fractions of Ly α, f
esc(Ly α) ∼ 20–40 per cent, among the highest known for Ly α emitting galaxies. Surface brightness profiles produced from the COS acquisition images reveal bright star-forming regions in the centre and exponential discs in the outskirts with disc scalelengths α in the range ∼0.6–1.4 kpc. Our galaxies are characterized by low metallicity, ∼1/8–1/5 solar, low stellar mass ∼(0.2–4) × 109 M⊙, high star formation rates, SFR ∼ 14–36 M⊙ yr−1, and high SFR densities, Σ ∼ 2–35 M⊙ yr−1 kpc−2. These properties are comparable to those of high-redshift star-forming galaxies. Finally, our observations, combined with our first detection reported in Izotov et al., reveal that a selection for compact star-forming galaxies showing high O iii λ5007/O ii λ3727 ratios appears to pick up very efficiently sources with escaping LyC radiation: all five of our selected galaxies are LyC leakers.
The fraction of ionizing photons that escape high-redshift galaxies sensitively determines whether galaxies reionized the early Universe. However, this escape fraction cannot be measured from ...high-redshift galaxies because the opacity of the intergalactic medium is large at high redshifts. Without methods to measure the escape fraction of high-redshift galaxies indirectly, it is unlikely that we will know what reionized the Universe. Here, we analyze the far-ultraviolet (UV) H I (Lyman series) and low-ionization metal absorption lines of nine low-redshift, confirmed Lyman continuum emitting galaxies. We use the H I covering fractions, column densities, and dust attenuations measured in a companion paper to predict the escape fraction of ionizing photons. We find good agreement between the predicted and observed Lyman continuum escape fractions (within 1.4σ) using both the H I and ISM absorption lines. The ionizing photons escape through holes in the H I, but we show that dust attenuation reduces the fraction of photons that escape galaxies. This means that the average high-redshift galaxy likely emits more ionizing photons than low-redshift galaxies. Two other indirect methods accurately predict the escape fractions: the Lyα escape fraction and the optical O III/O II flux ratio. We use these indirect methods to predict the escape fraction of a sample of 21 galaxies with rest-frame UV spectra but without Lyman continuum observations. Many of these galaxies have low escape fractions (fesc ≤ 1%), but 11 have escape fractions >1%. Future studies will use these methods to measure the escape fractions of high-redshift galaxies, enabling upcoming telescopes to determine whether star-forming galaxies reionized the early Universe.
Context. The processes allowing the escape of ionizing photons from galaxies into the intergalactic medium are poorly known. Aims. To understand how Lyman continuum (LyC) photons escape galaxies, we ...constrain the H I covering fractions and column densities using ultraviolet (UV) H I and metal absorption lines of 18 star-forming galaxies that have Lyman series observations. Nine of these galaxies are confirmed LyC emitters. Methods. We fit the stellar continuum, dust attenuation, metal, and H I properties to consistently determine the UV attenuation, as well as the column densities and covering factors of neutral hydrogen and metals. We used synthetic interstellar absorption lines to explore the systematics of our measurements. Then we applied our method to the observed UV spectra of low-redshift and z ~ 3 galaxies. Results. The observed H I lines are found to be saturated in all galaxies. An indirect approach using O I column densities and the observed O/H abundances yields H I column densities of log(NH I) ~ 18.6−20 cm−2. These columns are too high to allow the escape of ionizing photons. We find that the known LyC leakers have H I covering fractions less than unity. Ionizing photons escape through optically thin channels in a clumpy interstellar medium. Our simulations confirm that the H I covering fractions are accurately recovered. The Si II and H I covering fractions scale linearly, in agreement with observations from stacked Lyman break galaxy spectra at z ~ 3. Thus, with an empirical correction, the Si II absorption lines can also be used to determine the H I coverage. Finally, we show that a consistent fitting of dust attenuation, continuum, and absorption lines is required to properly infer the covering fraction of neutral gas and subsequently to infer the escape fraction of ionizing radiation. Conclusions. These measurements can estimate the LyC escape fraction, as we demonstrate in a companion paper.
Context.
Identifying the physical mechanisms driving the escape of Lyman continuum (LyC) photons is crucial for the search of Lyman continuum emitter (LCE) candidates.
Aims.
To understand the ...physical properties involved in the leakage of LyC photons, we investigate the connection between the H
I
covering fraction, H
I
velocity width, the Lyman
α
(Ly
α
) properties, and the escape of LyC photons in a sample of 22 star-forming galaxies, which includes 13 confirmed LCEs.
Methods.
We fit the stellar continuum, dust attenuation, and absorption lines between 920 Å and 1300 Å to extract the H
I
covering fractions and dust attenuation. Additionally, we measure the H
I
velocity widths of the optically thick Lyman series and derive the Ly
α
equivalent widths (EW), escape fractions (
f
esc
), peak velocities, and fluxes at the minimum of the observed Ly
α
profiles.
Results.
Overall, we highlight strong observational correlations between the presence of low H
I
covering fractions and the observation of (1) low Ly
α
peak velocities; (2) more flux at the profile minimum; and (3) larger EW(Ly
α
),
f
esc
(Ly
α
), and
f
esc
obs
(LyC). Hence, low column density channels are crucial ISM ingredients for the leakage of Ly
α
and LyC photons. Additionally, galaxies with narrower H
I
absorption velocity widths have higher Ly
α
equivalent widths, larger Ly
α
escape fractions, and lower Ly
α
peak velocity separations. This may suggest that these galaxies have low H
I
column density. Finally, we find that dust also regulates the amount of Ly
α
and LyC radiation that actually escapes the ISM.
Conclusions.
The ISM porosity is one of the origins of strong Ly
α
emission, enabling the escape of ionizing photons in low-
z
leakers. However, this is not sufficient to explain the largest
f
esc
obs
(LyC), which indicates that the most extreme LCEs are likely to be density-bounded along all lines of sight to the observer. Overall, the neutral gas porosity provides a constraint for a lower limit to the escape fraction of LyC and Ly
α
photons, which offers a key estimator for assessing the leakage of ionizing photons.
One of the key questions in observational cosmology is the identification of the sources responsible for ionization of the Universe after the cosmic 'Dark Ages', when the baryonic matter was neutral. ...The currently identified distant galaxies are insufficient to fully reionize the Universe by redshift z ≈ 6 (refs 1-3), but low-mass, star-forming galaxies are thought to be responsible for the bulk of the ionizing radiation. As direct observations at high redshift are difficult for a variety of reasons, one solution is to identify local proxies of this galaxy population. Starburst galaxies at low redshifts, however, generally are opaque to Lyman continuum photons. Small escape fractions of about 1 to 3 per cent, insufficient to ionize much surrounding gas, have been detected only in three low-redshift galaxies. Here we report far-ultraviolet observations of the nearby low-mass star-forming galaxy J0925+1403. The galaxy is leaking ionizing radiation with an escape fraction of about 8 per cent. The total number of photons emitted during the starburst phase is sufficient to ionize intergalactic medium material that is about 40 times as massive as the stellar mass of the galaxy.
Context. The Lyman-alpha (Lyα) line of hydrogen is of prime importance for detecting galaxies at high redshift. For a correct data interpretation, numerical radiative transfer models are necessary ...due to Lyα resonant scattering off neutral hydrogen atoms. Aims. Recent observations have discovered an escape of ionizing Lyman-continuum radiation from a population of compact, actively star-forming galaxies at redshift z ~ 0.2−0.3, also known as “green peas”. For the potential similarities with high-redshift galaxies and impact on the reionization of the universe, we study the green pea Lyα spectra, which are mostly double-peaked, unlike in any other galaxy sample. If the double peaks are a result of radiative transfer, they can be a useful source of information on the green pea interstellar medium and ionizing radiation escape. Methods. We select a sample of twelve archival green peas and we apply numerical radiative transfer models to reproduce the observed Lyα spectral profiles, using the geometry of expanding, homogeneous spherical shells. We use ancillary optical and ultraviolet data to constrain the model parameters, and we evaluate the match between the models and the observed Lyα spectra. As a second step, we allow all the fitting parameters to be free, and examine the agreement between the interstellar medium parameters derived from the models and those from ancillary data. Results. The peculiar green pea double-peaked Lyα line profiles are not correctly reproduced by the constrained shell models. Conversely, unconstrained models fit the spectra, but parameters derived from the best-fitting models are not in agreement with the ancillary data. In particular: 1) the best-fit systemic redshifts are larger by 10–250 km s−1 than those derived from optical emission lines; 2) the double-peaked Lyα profiles are best reproduced with low-velocity (≲150 km s−1) outflows that contradict the observed ultraviolet absorption lines of low-ionization-state elements with characteristic velocities as large as 300 km s−1; and 3) the models need to consider intrinsic Lyα profiles that are on average three times broader than the observed Balmer lines. Conclusions. Differences between the modelled and observed velocities are larger for targets with prominent Lyα blue peaks. The blue peak position and flux appear to be connected to low column densities of neutral hydrogen, leading to Lyα and Lyman-continuum escape. This is at odds with the kinematic origin of the blue peak in the homogeneous shell models. Additional modelling is needed to explore alternative geometries such as clumpy media and non-recombination Lyα sources to further constrain the role and significance of the Lyα double peaks.
Context.
Resonant lines are powerful probes of the interstellar and circumgalactic medium of galaxies. Their transfer in gas being a complex process, the interpretation of their observational ...signatures, either in absorption or in emission, is often not straightforward. Numerical radiative transfer simulations are needed to accurately describe the travel of resonant line photons in real and in frequency space, and to produce realistic mock observations.
Aims.
This paper introduces RASCAS, a new public 3D radiative transfer code developed to perform the propagation of any resonant line in numerical simulations of astrophysical objects. RASCAS was designed to be easily customisable and to process simulations of arbitrarily large sizes on large supercomputers.
Methods.
RASCAS performs radiative transfer on an adaptive mesh with an octree structure using the Monte Carlo technique. RASCAS features full MPI parallelisation, domain decomposition, adaptive load-balancing, and a standard peeling algorithm to construct mock observations. The radiative transport of resonant line photons through different mixes of species (e.g. H
I
, Si
II
, Mg
II
, Fe
II
), including their interaction with dust, is implemented in a modular fashion to allow new transitions to be easily added to the code.
Results.
RASCAS is very accurate and efficient. It shows perfect scaling up to a minimum of a thousand cores. It has been fully tested against radiative transfer problems with analytic solutions and against various test cases proposed in the literature. Although it was designed to describe accurately the many scatterings of line photons, RASCAS may also be used to propagate photons at any wavelength (e.g. stellar continuum or fluorescent lines), or to cast millions of rays to integrate the optical depths of ionising photons, making it highly versatile.
Aims. We have recently reported the discovery of five low redshift Lyman continuum (LyC) emitters (LCEs) with absolute escape fractions fescLyC that range from 6 to 13%, higher than previously found ...and that more than double the number of low redshift LCEs. We use these observations to test theoretical predictions about a link between the characteristics of the Lyman-alpha (Lyα) line from galaxies and the escape of ionizing photons. Methods. We analyse the Lyα spectra of eight LCEs of the local Universe observed with the Cosmic Origins Spectrograph onboard the Hubble Space Telescope (our five leakers and three galaxies from the litterature), and compare their strengths and shapes to the theoretical criteria and comparison samples of local galaxies: the Lyman Alpha Reference Survey, Lyman-break analogs, Green Peas, and the high-redshift strong LyC leaker Ion2. Results. Our LCEs are found to be strong Lyα emitters, with high equivalent widths, EW(Lyα) > 70 Å, and large Lyα escape fractions, fescLyα> 20%. The Lyα profiles are all double-peaked with a small peak separation, in agreement with our theoretical expectations. They also have no underlying absorption at the Lyα position. All these characteristics are very different from the Lyα properties of typical star-forming galaxies of the local Universe. A subset of the comparison samples (2−3 Green Pea galaxies) share these extreme values, indicating that they could also be leaking. We also find a strong correlation between the star formation rate surface density and the escape fraction of ionizing photons, indicating that the compactness of star-forming regions plays a role in shaping low column density paths in the interstellar medium of LCEs. Conclusions. The Lyα properties of LCEs are peculiar: Lyα can be used as a reliable tracer of LyC escape from galaxies, complementing other indirect diagnostics proposed in the literature.
Abstract
Absorption line spectroscopy offers one of the best opportunities to constrain the properties of galactic outflows and the environment of the circumgalactic medium. Extracting physical ...information from line profiles is difficult; however, for the physics governing the underlying radiation transfer is complicated and depends on many different parameters. Idealized analytical models are necessary to constrain the large parameter spaces efficiently, but are typically plagued by model degeneracy and systematic errors. Comparison tests with idealized numerical radiation transfer codes offer an excellent opportunity to confront both of these issues. In this paper, we present a detailed comparison between SALT, an analytical radiation transfer model for predicting UV spectra of galactic outflows, with the numerical radiation transfer software, RASCAS. Our analysis has led to upgrades to both models including an improved derivation of SALT and a customizable adaptive mesh refinement routine for RASCAS. We explore how well SALT, when paired with a Monte Carlo fitting procedure, can recover flow parameters from nonturbulent and turbulent flows. Overall we find that turbulence leads to biases in the recovery of kinematic parameters and the optical depth, but find that derived quantities (e.g., mass outflow rates, column density, etc.) are still well recovered. From the analysis, we estimate average uncertainties in our ability to measure metal flow rates spanning 0.65 (0.95) dex in
M
⊙
yr
−1
and uncertainties spanning 0.54 (0.94) dex in cm
−2
for column densities at a resolution of 20 (100) km s
−1
and signal-to-noise ratio = 10.
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