We study relation between stellar mass and halo mass for high-mass halos using a sample of galaxy clusters with accurate measurements of stellar masses from optical and ifrared data and total masses ...from X-ray observations. We find that stellar mass of the brightest cluster galaxies (BCGs) scales as
M
*,BCG
∝ M
500
α
BCG
with the best fit slope of
α
BCG
≈ 0.4 ± 0.1. We measure scatter of
M
*,BCG
at a fixed
M
500
of ≈0.2 dex. We show that stellar mass-halo mass relations from abundance matching or halo modelling reported in recent studies underestimate masses of BCGs by a factor of ∼2−4. We argue that this is because these studies used stellar mass functions (SMF) based on photometry that severely underestimates the outer surface brightness profiles of massive galaxies. We show that
M
*
−M
relation derived using abundance matching with the recent SMF calibration by Bernardi et al. (2013) based on improved photometry is in a much better agreement with the relation we derive via direct calibration for observed clusters. The total stellar mass of galaxies correlates with total mass
M
500
with the slope of ≈0.6 ± 0.1 and scatter of 0.1 dex. This indicates that efficiency with which baryons are converted into stars decreases with increasing cluster mass. The low scatter is due to large contribution of satellite galaxies: the stellar mass in satellite galaxies correlates with
M
500
with scatter of ≈0.1 dex and best fit slope of α
sat
≈ 0.8 ± 0.1. We show that for a fixed choice of the initial mass function (IMF) total stellar fraction in clusters is only a factor of 3−5 lower than the peak stellar fraction reached in
M
≈ 10
12
M
⊙
halos. The difference is only a factor of ∼1.5−3 if the IMF becomes progressively more bottom heavy with increasing mass in early type galaxies, as indicated by recent observational analyses. This means that the overall efficiency of star formation in massive halos is only moderately suppressed compared to
L
*
galaxies and is considerably less suppressed than previously thought. The larger normalization and slope of the
M
*
−
M
relation derived in this study shows that feedback and associated suppression of star formation in massive halos should be weaker than assumed in most of the current semi-analytic models and simulations.
X-ray surface brightness fluctuations in the core (650 × 650 kpc) region of the Coma cluster observed with XMM-Newton and Chandra are analysed using a 2D power spectrum approach. The resulting 2D ...spectra are converted to 3D power spectra of gas density fluctuations. Our independent analyses of the XMM-Newton and Chandra observations are in excellent agreement and provide the most sensitive measurements of surface brightness and density fluctuations for a hot cluster. We find that the characteristic amplitude of the volume filling density fluctuations relative to the smooth underlying density distribution varies from 7- 10 per cent on scales of ∼500 kpc down to ∼5 per cent on scales of ∼30 kpc. On smaller spatial scales, projection effects smear the density fluctuations by a large factor, precluding strong limits on the fluctuations in 3D. On the largest scales probed (hundreds of kpc), the dominant contributions to the observed fluctuations most likely arise from perturbations of the gravitational potential by the two most massive galaxies in Coma, NGC4874 and NGC4889, and the low-entropy gas brought to the cluster by an infalling group. Other plausible sources of X-ray surface brightness fluctuations are discussed, including turbulence, metal abundance variations and unresolved sources. Despite a variety of possible origins for density fluctuations, the gas in the Coma cluster core is remarkably homogeneous on scales from ∼500 to ∼30 kpc.
Aims. Imaging and spectroscopy of X-ray extended sources require a proper characterisation of a spatially unresolved background signal. This background includes sky and instrumental components, each ...of which are characterised by its proper spatial and spectral behaviour. While the X-ray sky background has been extensively studied in previous work, here we analyse and model the instrumental background of the ACIS-I detector on board the Chandra X-ray observatory in very faint mode. Methods. Caused by interaction of highly energetic particles with the detector, the ACIS-I instrumental background is spectrally characterised by the superimposition of several fluorescence emission lines onto a continuum. To isolate its flux from any sky component, we fitted an analytical model of the continuum to observations performed in very faint mode with the detector in the stowed position shielded from the sky, and gathered over the eight-year period starting in 2001. The remaining emission lines were fitted to blank-sky observations of the same period. We found 11 emission lines. Analysing the spatial variation of the amplitude, energy and width of these lines has further allowed us to infer that three lines of these are presumably due to an energy correction artefact produced in the frame store. Results. We provide an analytical model that predicts the instrumental background with a precision of 2% in the continuum and 5% in the lines. We use this model to measure the flux of the unresolved cosmic X-ray background in the Chandra deep field south. We obtain a flux of 10.2+0.5-0.4 × 10-13 erg cm-2 deg-2 s-1 for the 1−2 keV band and (3.8 ± 0.2) × 10-12 erg cm-2 deg-2 s-1 for the 2−8 keV band.
We study the effects of radiative cooling and galaxy formation on the baryon fractions in clusters using high-resolution cosmological simulations that resolve formation of cluster galaxies. The ...simulations of nine individual clusters spanning a decade in mass are performed with the shock-capturing Eulerian adaptive mesh refinement N-body+gasdynamical Adaptive Refinement Tree code. For each cluster the simulations were done in the adiabatic regime (without dissipation) and with radiative cooling and several physical processes critical to various aspects of galaxy formation: star formation, metal enrichment, and stellar feedback. We show that radiative cooling of gas and associated star formation increase the total baryon fractions within radii as large as the virial radius. The effect is strongest within cluster cores, where the simulations with cooling have baryon fractions larger than the universal value, in contrast to the adiabatic simulations in which the fraction of baryons is substantially smaller than the universal value. At larger radii (r r sub(500)) the cumulative baryon fractions in simulations with cooling are close to the universal value. The gas fractions in simulations with dissipation are reduced by -20%-40% at r < 0.3r sub(vir) and -10% at larger radii compared to the adiabatic runs, because a fraction of gas is converted into stars. There is an indication that gas fractions within different radii increase with increasing cluster mass as f sub(gas) 8 M super(0) sub(v) super(.) sub(i) super(2) sub(r). We find that the total baryon fraction within the cluster virial radius does not evolve with time in both adiabatic simulations and in simulations with cooling. The gas fractions in the latter decrease slightly from z = 1 to 0 due to ongoing star formation. Finally, to evaluate systematic uncertainties in the baryon fraction in cosmological simulations we present a comparison of gas fractions in our adiabatic simulations to resimulations of the same objects with the entropy-conserving smoothed particle hydrodynamics (SPH) code Gadget. The cumulative gas fraction profiles in the two sets of simulations on average agree to better than -3% outside the cluster core (r/r sub(vir) 0.2) but differ by up to 10% at small radii. The differences are smaller than those found in previous comparisons of Eulerian and SPH simulations. Nevertheless, they are systematic and have to be kept in mind when using gas fractions from cosmological simulations.
M87, the active galaxy at the center of the Virgo cluster, is ideal for studying the interaction of a supermassive black hole (SMBH) with a hot, gas-rich environment. A deep Chandra observation of ...M87 exhibits an approximately circular shock front (13 kpc radius, in projection) driven by the expansion of the central cavity (filled by the SMBH with relativistic radio-emitting plasma) with projected radius ∼1.9 kpc. We combine constraints from X-ray and radio observations of M87 with a shock model to derive the properties of the outburst that created the 13 kpc shock. Principal constraints for the model are (1) the measured Mach number (M ∼ 1.2), (2) the radius of the 13 kpc shock, and (3) the observed size of the central cavity/bubble (the radio-bright cocoon) that serves as the piston to drive the shock. We find that an outburst of ∼5 × 1057 erg that began about 12 Myr ago and lasted ∼2 Myr matches all the constraints. In this model, ∼22% of the energy is carried by the shock as it expands. The remaining ∼80% of the outburst energy is available to heat the core gas. More than half the total outburst energy initially goes into the enthalpy of the central bubble, the radio cocoon. As the buoyant bubble rises, much of its energy is transferred to the ambient thermal gas. For an outburst repetition rate of about 12 Myr (the age of the outburst), 80% of the outburst energy is sufficient to balance the radiative cooling.
We present a machine-learning (ML) approach for estimating galaxy cluster masses from Chandra mock images. We utilize a Convolutional Neural Network (CNN), a deep ML tool commonly used in image ...recognition tasks. The CNN is trained and tested on our sample of 7896 Chandra X-ray mock observations, which are based on 329 massive clusters from the simulation. Our CNN learns from a low resolution spatial distribution of photon counts and does not use spectral information. Despite our simplifying assumption to neglect spectral information, the resulting mass values estimated by the CNN exhibit small bias in comparison to the true masses of the simulated clusters (−0.02 dex) and reproduce the cluster masses with low intrinsic scatter, 8% in our best fold and 12% averaging over all. In contrast, a more standard core-excised luminosity method achieves 15%-18% scatter. We interpret the results with an approach inspired by Google DeepDream and find that the CNN ignores the central regions of clusters, which are known to have high scatter with mass.
An unresolved X-ray glow (at energies above a few kiloelectronvolts) was discovered about 25 years ago and found to be coincident with the Galactic disk-the Galactic ridge X-ray emission. This ...emission has a spectrum characteristic of a approximately 10(8) K optically thin thermal plasma, with a prominent iron emission line at 6.7 keV. The gravitational well of the Galactic disk, however, is far too shallow to confine such a hot interstellar medium; instead, it would flow away at a velocity of a few thousand kilometres per second, exceeding the speed of sound in the gas. To replenish the energy losses requires a source of 10(43) erg s(-1), exceeding by orders of magnitude all plausible energy sources in the Milky Way. An alternative is that the hot plasma is bound to a multitude of faint sources, which is supported by the recently observed similarities in the X-ray and near-infrared surface brightness distributions (the latter traces the Galactic stellar distribution). Here we report that at energies of approximately 6-7 keV, more than 80 per cent of the seemingly diffuse X-ray emission is resolved into discrete sources, probably accreting white dwarfs and coronally active stars.
Celotno besedilo
Dostopno za:
DOBA, IJS, IZUM, KILJ, NUK, PILJ, PNG, SAZU, SIK, UILJ, UKNU, UL, UM, UPUK
The hot (10(7) to 10(8) kelvin), X-ray-emitting intracluster medium (ICM) is the dominant baryonic constituent of clusters of galaxies. In the cores of many clusters, radiative energy losses from the ...ICM occur on timescales much shorter than the age of the system. Unchecked, this cooling would lead to massive accumulations of cold gas and vigorous star formation, in contradiction to observations. Various sources of energy capable of compensating for these cooling losses have been proposed, the most promising being heating by the supermassive black holes in the central galaxies, through inflation of bubbles of relativistic plasma. Regardless of the original source of energy, the question of how this energy is transferred to the ICM remains open. Here we present a plausible solution to this question based on deep X-ray data and a new data analysis method that enable us to evaluate directly the ICM heating rate from the dissipation of turbulence. We find that turbulent heating is sufficient to offset radiative cooling and indeed appears to balance it locally at each radius-it may therefore be the key element in resolving the gas cooling problem in cluster cores and, more universally, in the atmospheres of X-ray-emitting, gas-rich systems on scales from galaxy clusters to groups and elliptical galaxies.
Celotno besedilo
Dostopno za:
DOBA, IJS, IZUM, KILJ, NUK, PILJ, PNG, SAZU, SIK, UILJ, UKNU, UL, UM, UPUK
X-ray surface brightness fluctuations in the core of the Perseus Cluster are analysed, using deep observations with the Chandra observatory. The amplitude of gas density fluctuations on different ...scales is measured in a set of radial annuli. It varies from 7 to 12 per cent on scales of ∼10–30 kpc within radii of 30–220 kpc from the cluster centre. Using a statistical linear relation between the observed amplitude of density fluctuations and predicted velocity, the characteristic velocity of gas motions on each scale is calculated. The typical amplitudes of the velocity outside the central 30 kpc region are 90–140 km s−1 on ∼20–30 kpc scales and 70–100 km s−1 on smaller scales ∼7–10 kpc. The velocity power spectrum (PS) is consistent with cascade of turbulence and its slope is in a broad agreement with the slope for canonical Kolmogorov turbulence. The gas clumping factor estimated from the PS of the density fluctuations is lower than 7–8 per cent for radii ∼30–220 kpc from the centre, leading to a density bias of less than 3–4 per cent in the cluster core. Uncertainties of the analysis are examined and discussed. Future measurements of the gas velocities with the Astro-H, Athena and Smart-X observatories will directly measure the gas density–velocity perturbation relation and further reduce systematic uncertainties in this analysis.
Cores of relaxed galaxy clusters are often disturbed by AGN. Their Chandra observations revealed a wealth of structures induced by shocks, subsonic gas motions, bubbles of relativistic plasma, etc. ...In this paper, we determine the nature and energy content of gas fluctuations in the Perseus core by probing statistical properties of emissivity fluctuations imprinted in the soft- and hard-band X-ray images. About 80 per cent of the total variance of perturbations on ∼8–70 kpc scales in the core have an isobaric nature, i.e. are consistent with subsonic displacements of the gas in pressure equilibrium with the ambient medium. The observed variance translates to the ratio of energy in perturbations to thermal energy of ∼13 per cent. In the region dominated by weak ‘ripples’, about half of the total variance is associated with isobaric perturbations on scales of a few tens of kpc. If these isobaric perturbations are induced by buoyantly rising bubbles, then these results suggest that most of the AGN-injected energy should first go into bubbles rather than into shocks. Using simulations of a shock propagating through the Perseus atmosphere, we found that models reproducing the observed features of a central shock have more than 50 per cent of the AGN-injected energy associated with the bubble enthalpy and only about 20 per cent is carried away with the shock. Such energy partition is consistent with the AGN-feedback model, mediated by bubbles of relativistic plasma, and supports the importance of turbulence in the cooling–heating balance.
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