Context. Cyanopolyynes are chains of carbon atoms with an atom of hydrogen and a CN group on either side. They are detected almost everywhere in the interstellar medium (ISM), as well as in comets. ...In the past, they have been used to constrain the age of some molecular clouds, since their abundance is predicted to be a strong function of time. Finally, cyanopolyynes can potentially contain a large portion of molecular carbon. Aims. We present an extensive study of the cyanopolyynes distribution in the solar-type protostar IRAS 16293-2422. The goals are (i) to obtain a census of the cyanopolyynes in this source and of their isotopologues; (ii) to derive how their abundance varies across the protostar envelope; and (iii) to obtain constraints on the history of IRAS 16293-2422 by comparing the observations with the predictions of a chemical model. Methods. We analysed the data from the IRAM-30 m unbiased millimeter and submillimeter spectral survey towards IRAS 16293-2422 named TIMASSS. The derived spectral line energy distribution (SLED) of each detected cyanopolyyne was compared with the predictions from the radiative transfer code GRenoble Analysis of Protostellar Envelope Spectra (GRAPES) to derive the cyanopolyyne abundances across the envelope of IRAS 16293-2422. Finally, the derived abundances were compared with the predictions of the chemical model UCL_CHEM. Results. We detect several lines from cyanoacetylene (HC3N) and cyanodiacetylene (HC5N), and report the first detection of deuterated cyanoacetylene, DC3N, in a solar-type protostar. We found that the HC3N abundance is roughly constant (~1.3 × 10-11) in the outer cold envelope of IRAS 16293-2422, and it increases by about a factor 100 in the inner region where the dust temperature exceeds 80 K, namely when the volcano ice desorption is predicted to occur. The HC5N has an abundance similar to HC3N in the outer envelope and about a factor of ten lower in the inner region. The comparison with the chemical model predictions provides constraints on the oxygen and carbon gaseous abundance in the outer envelope and, most importantly, on the age of the source. The HC3N abundance derived in the inner region, and where the increase occurs, also provide strong constraints on the time taken for the dust to warm up to 80 K, which has to be shorter than ~103−104 yr. Finally, the cyanoacetylene deuteration is about 50% in the outer envelope and ≤5% in the warm inner region. The relatively low deuteration in the warm region suggests that we are witnessing a fossil of the HC3N abundantly formed in the tenuous phase of the pre-collapse and then frozen into the grain mantles at a later phase. Conclusions. The accurate analysis of the cyanopolyynes in IRAS 16293-2422 unveils an important part of its past story. It tells us that IRAS 16293-2422 underwent a relatively fast (≤105 yr) collapse and a very fast (≤103−104 yr) warming up of the cold material to 80 K.
Context. We perform a laboratory characterization in the 18–1893 GHz range and astronomical detection between 80–280 GHz in Orion-KL with IRAM-30 m of CH2CHCN (vinyl cyanide) in its ground and ...vibrationally excited states. Aims. Our aim is to improve the understanding of rotational spectra of vibrationally excited vinyl cyanide with new laboratory data and analysis. The laboratory results allow searching for these excited state transitions in the Orion-KL line survey. Furthermore, rotational lines of CH2CHCN contribute to the understanding of the physical and chemical properties of the cloud. Methods. Laboratory measurements of CH2CHCN made on several different frequency-modulated spectrometers were combined into a single broadband 50–1900 GHz spectrum and its assignment was confirmed by Stark modulation spectra recorded in the 18–40 GHz region and by ab-initio anharmonic force field calculations. For analyzing the emission lines of vinyl cyanide detected in Orion-KL we used the excitation and radiative transfer code (MADEX) at LTE conditions. Results. Detailed characterization of laboratory spectra of CH2CHCN in nine different excited vibrational states: ν11 = 1, ν15 = 1, ν11 = 2, ν10 = 1 ⇔ (ν11 = 1,ν15 = 1), ν11 = 3/ν15 = 2/ν14 = 1, (ν11 = 1,ν10 = 1) ⇔ (ν11 = 2,ν15 = 1), ν9 = 1, (ν11 = 1,ν15 = 2) ⇔ (ν10 = 1,ν15 = 1) ⇔ (ν11 = 1,ν14 = 1), and ν11 = 4 are determined, as well as the detection of transitions in the ν11 = 2 and ν11 = 3 states for the first time in Orion-KL and of those in the ν10 = 1 ⇔ (ν11 = 1,ν15 = 1) dyad of states for the first time in space. The rotational transitions of the ground state of this molecule emerge from four cloud components of hot core nature, which trace the physical and chemical conditions of high mass star forming regions in the Orion-KL Nebula. The lowest energy vibrationally excited states of vinyl cyanide, such as ν11 = 1 (at 328.5 K), ν15 = 1 (at 478.6 K), ν11 = 2 (at 657.8 K), the ν10 = 1 ⇔ (ν11 = 1,ν15 = 1) dyad (at 806.4/809.9 K), and ν11 = 3 (at 987.9 K), are populated under warm and dense conditions, so they probe the hottest parts of the Orion-KL source. The vibrational temperatures derived for the ν11 = 1, ν11 = 2, and ν15 = 1 states are 252 ± 76 K, 242 ± 121 K, and 227 ± 68 K, respectively; all of them are close to the mean kinetic temperature of the hot core component (210 K). The total column density of CH2CHCN in the ground state is (3.0 ± 0.9) × 1015 cm-2. We report the detection of methyl isocyanide (CH3NC) for the first time in Orion-KL and a tentative detection of vinyl isocyanide (CH2CHNC). We also give column density ratios between the cyanide and isocyanide isomers, obtaining a N(CH3NC)/N(CH3CN) ratio of 0.002. Conclusions. Laboratory characterization of many previously unassigned vibrationally excited states of vinyl cyanide ranging from microwave to THz frequencies allowed us to detect these molecular species in Orion-KL. Column density, rotational and vibrational temperatures for CH2CHCN in their ground and excited states, and the isotopologues have been constrained by means of a sample of more than 1000 lines in this survey.
L1157 is a prototypical chemically active outflow driven by a low-mass class-0 protostar, and B1 is its brightest bow shock. Toward L1157-B1, several emission lines of deuterated molecules have been ...detected for the first time by Codella et al. The authors suggested that these were formed on grain mantles, and then released into the gas phase by the passage of the shock. In this Letter we report observations obtained at high angular resolution with the Plateau de Bure Interferometer of HDCO and CH sub(2)DOH. The emission of HDCO perfectly delineates the region of the interface between the fast jet and the slower ambient material, confirming the predictions of the previous work that deuterated species were formed on grain mantles and then released into the gas phase by the passage of the shock. CH sub(2)DOH emission is fainter and thus its emitting region is not well determined. The deuterated fraction HDCO/H sub(2)CO is ~0.1 in the HDCO emitting region, an order of magnitude larger than the upper limit found in the surrounding material, probably dominated by warm-gas chemistry and less affected by grain evaporation. Our study represents the first clear evidence ever found of a deuterated molecule as shock tracer, and yields an indirect but "clean" measurement of the deuteration of the ices covering the dust grains during the cold pre-protostellar phase.
ABSTRACT We used the Atacama Large Millimeter Array (ALMA) to map the emission of the CO(6-5) molecular line and the 432 m continuum emission from the 300 pc sized circumnuclear disk (CND) of the ...nearby Seyfert 2 galaxy NGC 1068 with a spatial resolution of ∼4 pc. These observations spatially resolve the CND and, for the first time, image the dust emission, the molecular gas distribution, and the kinematics from a 7-10 pc diameter disk that represents the submillimeter counterpart of the putative torus of NGC 1068. We fitted the nuclear spectral energy distribution of the torus using ALMA and near- and mid-infrared (NIR/MIR) data with CLUMPY torus models. The mass and radius of the best-fit solution for the torus are both consistent with the values derived from the ALMA data alone: M gas torus = ( 1 0.3 ) × 10 5 M ☉ and Rtorus = 3.5 0.5 pc. The dynamics of the molecular gas in the torus show strong non-circular motions and enhanced turbulence superposed on a surprisingly slow rotation pattern of the disk. By contrast with the nearly edge-on orientation of the H2O megamaser disk, we found evidence suggesting that the molecular torus is less inclined (i = 34°-66°) at larger radii. The lopsided morphology and complex kinematics of the torus could be the signature of the Papaloizou-Pringle instability, long predicted to likely drive the dynamical evolution of active galactic nuclei tori.
Abstract
Evidence is mounting that the small bodies of our Solar system, such as comets and asteroids, have at least partially inherited their chemical composition from the first phases of the Solar ...system formation. It then appears that the molecular complexity of these small bodies is most likely related to the earliest stages of star formation. It is therefore important to characterize and to understand how the chemical evolution changes with solar-type protostellar evolution. We present here the Large Program ‘Astrochemical Surveys At IRAM’ (ASAI). Its goal is to carry out unbiased millimetre line surveys between 80 and 272 GHz of a sample of 10 template sources, which fully cover the first stages of the formation process of solar-type stars, from pre-stellar cores to the late protostellar phase. In this paper, we present an overview of the surveys and results obtained from the analysis of the 3 mm band observations. The number of detected main isotopic species barely varies with the evolutionary stage and is found to be very similar to that of massive star-forming regions. The molecular content in O- and C-bearing species allows us to define two chemical classes of envelopes, whose composition is dominated by either (a) a rich content in O-rich complex organic molecules, associated with hot corino sources, or (b) a rich content in hydrocarbons, typical of warm carbon-chain chemistry sources. Overall, a high chemical richness is found to be present already in the initial phases of solar-type star formation.
ABSTRACT
Recent observations of the pre-stellar core L1544 and the younger starless core L1498 have revealed that complex organic molecules (COMs) are enhanced in the gas phase towards their outer ...and intermediate-density shells. Our goal is to determine the level of chemical complexity towards the starless core L1517B, which seems younger than L1498, and compare it with the other two previously studied cores to see if there is a chemical evolution within the cores. We have carried out 3 mm high-sensitivity observations towards two positions in the L1517B starless core: the core’s centre and the position where the methanol emission peaks (at a distance of ∼5000 au from the core’s centre). Our observations reveal that a lower number of COMs and COM precursors are detected in L1517B with respect to L1498 and L1544, and also show lower abundances. Besides methanol, we only detected CH3O, H2CCO, CH3CHO, CH3CN, CH3NC, HCCCN, and HCCNC. Their measured abundances are ∼3 times larger towards the methanol peak than towards the core’s centre, mimicking the behaviour found towards the more evolved cores L1544 and L1498. We propose that the differences in the chemical complexity observed between the three studied starless cores are a consequence of their evolution, with L1517B being the less evolved one, followed by L1498 and L1544. Chemical complexity in these cores seems to increase over time, with N-bearing molecules forming first and O-bearing COMs forming at a later stage as a result of the catastrophic depletion of CO.
Context.
In the nearby (
D
= 14 Mpc) AGN-starburst composite galaxy NGC 1068, it has been found that the molecular gas in the circumnuclear disk (CND) is outflowing, which is a manifestation of ...ongoing AGN feedback. The outflowing gas has a large spread of velocities, which likely drive different shock chemistry signatures at different locations in the CND.
Aims.
We performed a multiline molecular study using two shock tracers, SiO and HNCO, with the aim of determining the gas properties traced by these two species, and we explore the possibility of reconstructing the shock history in the CND.
Methods.
Five SiO transitions and three HNCO transitions were imaged at high resolution 0.″5 − 0.″8 with the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA). We performed both LTE and non-LTE radiative transfer analysis coupled with Bayesian inference process in order to characterize the gas properties, such as the molecular gas density and gas temperature.
Results.
We found clear evidence of chemical differentiation between SiO and HNCO, with the SiO/HNCO ratio ranging from greater than one on the east of CND to lower than 1 on the west side. The non-LTE radiative transfer analysis coupled with Bayesian inference confirms that the gas traced by SiO has different densities – and possibly temperatures – than that traced by HNCO. We find that SiO traces gas affected by fast shocks while the gas traced by HNCO is either affected by slow shocks or not shocked at all.
Conclusions.
A distinct differentiation between SiO and HNCO has been revealed in our observations and our further analysis of the gas properties traced by both species confirms the results of previous chemical modelings.
ABSTRACT
The thermal desorption characteristics of 16 astrophysically relevant species from laboratory analogues of the icy mantles on interstellar dust grains have been surveyed in an extensive set ...of preliminary temperature programmed desorption experiments. The species can be separated into three categories based on behaviour. Water‐like species have a single relevant desorption coincident with water. CO‐like species show the volcano desorption and co‐desorption of trapped molecules, monolayer desorption from the surface of water ice, and multilayer desorption if initially present in sufficient abundance in an outer layer separated from the water ice. Intermediate species show the two desorptions of trapped molecules, and may show a small monolayer desorption for molecules small enough to have a limited ability to diffuse through the structure of porous amorphous water ice. Methods by which the results obtained under laboratory conditions can be adapted for astrophysical situations are discussed.
ABSTRACT
We present results from Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) observations of CS from the nearby galaxy NGC 1068 (∼14 Mpc). This Seyfert 2 barred galaxy possesses a ...circumnuclear disc (CND, r ∼ 200 pc) and a starburst ring (SB ring, r ∼ 1.3 kpc). These high-resolution maps (∼0.5 arcsec, ∼35 pc) allow us to analyse specific sub-regions in the galaxy and investigate differences in line intensity ratios and physical conditions, particularly those between the CND and SB ring. Local thermodynamic equilibrium (LTE) analysis of the gas is used to calculate CS densities in each sub-region, followed by the non-LTE analysis conducted using the radiative transfer code radex to fit observations and constrain gas temperature, CS column density and hydrogen density. Finally, the chemical code uclchem is used to reconstruct the gas, allowing an insight into its origin and chemical history. The density of hydrogen in the CND is found to be ≥105 cm−2, although exact values vary, reaching 106 cm−2 at the active galactic nucleus. The conditions in the two arms of the SB ring appear similar to one another, though the density found (∼104 cm−2) is lower than in the CND. The temperature in the CND increases from east to west, and is also overall greater than found in the SB ring. These modelling methods indicate the requirement for multiphase gas components in order to fit the observed emission over the galaxy. A larger number of high-resolution transitions across the SLED may allow for further constraining of the conditions, particularly in the SB ring.
Extragalactic observations allow the study of molecular chemistry and excitation under physical conditions which may differ greatly from those found in the Milky Way. The compact, obscured nuclei ...(CON) of luminous infrared galaxies (LIRG) combine large molecular columns with intense infrared (IR), ultra-violet (UV), and X- radiation and represent ideal laboratories for the study of the chemistry of the interstellar medium (ISM) under extreme conditions. Our aim was to obtain for the first time a multi-band spectral scan of a LIRG, and to derive molecular abundances and excitation to be compared to other Galactic and extragalactic environments. Our spectral scan confirms that the chemical complexity in the nucleus of NGC 4418 is one of the highest ever observed outside our Galaxy. We suggest that NGC 4418 may be a template for a new kind of chemistry and excitation, typical of CON. Because of the narrow line widths and bright molecular emission, NGC 4418 is the ideal target for further studies of the chemistry in CONs.
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