We present the first detection of atomic emission lines from the atmosphere of an exoplanet. We detect neutral iron lines from the dayside of KELT-9b (Teq ∼ 4000 K). We combined thousands of ...spectrally resolved lines observed during one night with the HARPS-N spectrograph (R ∼ 115,000), mounted at the Telescopio Nazionale Galileo. We introduce a novel statistical approach to extract the planetary parameters from the binary mask cross-correlation analysis. We also adapt the concept of contribution function to the context of high spectral resolution observations, to identify the location in the planetary atmosphere where the detected emission originates. The average planetary line profile intersected by a stellar G2 binary mask was found in emission with a contrast of 84 14 ppm relative to the planetary plus stellar continuum (40% 5% relative to the planetary continuum only). This result unambiguously indicates the presence of an atmospheric thermal inversion. Finally, assuming a modeled temperature profile previously published, we show that an iron abundance consistent with a few times the stellar value explains the data well. In this scenario, the iron emission originates at the 10−3-10−5 bar level.
To constrain the formation history of an exoplanet, we need to know its chemical composition
. With an equilibrium temperature of about 4,050 kelvin
, the exoplanet KELT-9b (also known as HD 195689b) ...is an archetype of the class of ultrahot Jupiters that straddle the transition between stars and gas-giant exoplanets and are therefore useful for studying atmospheric chemistry. At these high temperatures, iron and several other transition metals are not sequestered in molecules or cloud particles and exist solely in their atomic forms
. However, despite being the most abundant transition metal in nature, iron has not hitherto been detected directly in an exoplanet because it is highly refractory. The high temperatures of KELT-9b imply that its atmosphere is a tightly constrained chemical system that is expected to be nearly in chemical equilibrium
and cloud-free
, and it has been predicted that spectral lines of iron should be detectable in the visible range of wavelengths
. Here we report observations of neutral and singly ionized atomic iron (Fe and Fe
) and singly ionized atomic titanium (Ti
) in the atmosphere of KELT-9b. We identify these species using cross-correlation analysis
of high-resolution spectra obtained as the exoplanet passed in front of its host star. Similar detections of metals in other ultrahot Jupiters will provide constraints for planetary formation theories.
The Multiplanet System TOI-421 Gandolfi, Davide; Barragan, Oscar; Livingston, John H. ...
The Astronomical journal,
09/2020, Letnik:
160, Številka:
3
Journal Article
Recenzirano
Odprti dostop
We report the discovery of a warm Neptune and a hot sub-Neptune transiting TOI-421 (BD-14 1137, TIC 94986319), a bright (V = 9.9) G9 dwarf star in a visual binary system observed by the Transiting ...Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS) space mission in Sectors 5 and 6. We performed ground-based follow-up observations-comprised of Las Cumbres Observatory Global Telescope transit photometry, NIRC2 adaptive optics imaging, and FIbre-fed Echelle Spectrograph, CORALIE, High Accuracy Radial velocity Planet Searcher, High Resolution echelle Spectrometer, and Planet Finder Spectrograph high-precision Doppler measurements-and confirmed the planetary nature of the 16 day transiting candidate announced by the TESS team. We discovered an additional radial velocity signal with a period of five days induced by the presence of a second planet in the system, which we also found to transit its host star. We found that the inner mini-Neptune, TOI-421 b, has an orbital period of P-b = 5.19672 +/- 0.00049 days, a mass of M-b = 7.17 +/- 0.66 M-circle plus, and a radius of R-b = R-circle plus, whereas the outer warm Neptune, TOI-421 c, has a period of P-c = 16.06819 +/- 0.00035 days, a mass of M-c = 16.42(-1.04)(+1.06)M(circle plus), a radius of R-c = 5.09(-0.15)(+0.16)R(circle plus), and a density of rho(c) = 0.685(-0.072)(+0.080) cm(-3). With its characteristics, the outer planet (rho(c) = 0.685(-0.0072)(+0.080) cm(-3)) is placed in the intriguing class of the super-puffy mini-Neptunes. TOI-421 b and TOI-421 c are found to be well-suited for atmospheric characterization. Our atmospheric simulations predict significant Ly alpha transit absorption, due to strong hydrogen escape in both planets, as well as the presence of detectable CH4 in the atmosphere of TOI-421 c if equilibrium chemistry is assumed.
Space-borne low- to medium-resolution (ℛ ~ 102–103) and ground-based high-resolution spectrographs (ℛ ~ 105) are commonly used to obtain optical and near infrared transmission spectra of exoplanetary ...atmospheres. In this wavelength range, space-borne observations detect the broadest spectral features (alkali doublets, molecular bands, scattering, etc.), while high-resolution, ground-based observations probe the sharpest features (cores of the alkali lines, molecular lines). The two techniques differ by several aspects. (1) The line spread function of ground-based observations is ~103 times narrower than for space-borne observations; (2) Space-borne transmission spectra probe up to the base of thermosphere (P ≳ 10−6 bar), while ground-based observations can reach lower pressures (down to ~10−11 bar) thanks to their high resolution; (3) Space-borne observations directly yield the transit depth of the planet, while ground-based observations can only measure differences in the apparent size of the planet at different wavelengths. These differences make it challenging to combine both techniques. Here, we develop a robust method to compare theoretical models with observations at different resolutions. We introduce πη, a line-by-line 1D radiative transfer code to compute theoretical transmission spectra over a broad wavelength range at very high resolution (ℛ ~ 106, or Δλ ~ 0.01 Å). An hybrid forward modeling/retrieval optimization scheme is devised to deal with the large computational resources required by modeling a broad wavelength range ~0.3–2 μm at high resolution. We apply our technique to HD 189733b. In this planet, HST observations reveal a flattened spectrum due to scattering by aerosols, while high-resolution ground-based HARPS observations reveal sharp features corresponding to the cores of sodium lines. We reconcile these apparent contrasting results by building models that reproduce simultaneously both data sets, from the troposphere to the thermosphere. We confirm: (1) the presence of scattering by tropospheric aerosols; (2) that the sodium core feature is of thermospheric origin. When we take into account the presence of aerosols, the large contrast of the core of the sodium lines measured by HARPS indicates a temperature of up to ~10 000K in the thermosphere, higher than what reported in the literature. We also show that the precise value of the thermospheric temperature is degenerate with the relative optical depth of sodium, controlled by its abundance, and of the aerosol deck.
The angle between the spin of a star and the orbital planes of its planets traces the history of the planetary system. Exoplanets orbiting close to cool stars are expected to be on circular, aligned ...orbits because of strong tidal interactions with the stellar convective envelope. Spin-orbit alignment can be measured when the planet transits its star, but such ground-based spectroscopic measurements are challenging for cool, slowly rotating stars. Here we report the three-dimensional characterization of the trajectory of an exoplanet around an M dwarf star, derived by mapping the spectrum of the stellar photosphere along the chord transited by the planet. We find that the eccentric orbit of the Neptune-mass exoplanet GJ 436b is nearly perpendicular to the stellar equator. Both eccentricity and misalignment, surprising around a cool star, can result from dynamical interactions (via Kozai migration) with a yet-undetected outer companion. This inward migration of GJ 436b could have triggered the atmospheric escape that now sustains its giant exosphere.
Space-borne low- to medium-resolution (ℛ ~ 10
2
–10
3
) and ground-based high-resolution spectrographs (ℛ ~ 10
5
) are commonly used to obtain optical and near infrared transmission spectra of ...exoplanetary atmospheres. In this wavelength range, space-borne observations detect the broadest spectral features (alkali doublets, molecular bands, scattering, etc.), while high-resolution, ground-based observations probe the sharpest features (cores of the alkali lines, molecular lines). The two techniques differ by several aspects. (1) The line spread function of ground-based observations is ~10
3
times narrower than for space-borne observations; (2) Space-borne transmission spectra probe up to the base of thermosphere (
P
≳ 10
−6
bar), while ground-based observations can reach lower pressures (down to ~10
−11
bar) thanks to their high resolution; (3) Space-borne observations directly yield the transit depth of the planet, while ground-based observations can only measure differences in the apparent size of the planet at different wavelengths. These differences make it challenging to combine both techniques. Here, we develop a robust method to compare theoretical models with observations at different resolutions. We introduce
π
η
, a line-by-line 1D radiative transfer code to compute theoretical transmission spectra over a broad wavelength range at very high resolution (ℛ ~ 10
6
, or Δ
λ
~ 0.01 Å). An hybrid forward modeling/retrieval optimization scheme is devised to deal with the large computational resources required by modeling a broad wavelength range ~0.3–2
μ
m at high resolution. We apply our technique to HD 189733b. In this planet, HST observations reveal a flattened spectrum due to scattering by aerosols, while high-resolution ground-based HARPS observations reveal sharp features corresponding to the cores of sodium lines. We reconcile these apparent contrasting results by building models that reproduce simultaneously both data sets, from the troposphere to the thermosphere. We confirm: (1) the presence of scattering by tropospheric aerosols; (2) that the sodium core feature is of thermospheric origin. When we take into account the presence of aerosols, the large contrast of the core of the sodium lines measured by HARPS indicates a temperature of up to ~10 000K in the thermosphere, higher than what reported in the literature. We also show that the precise value of the thermospheric temperature is degenerate with the relative optical depth of sodium, controlled by its abundance, and of the aerosol deck.
ABSTRACT We present a theory for interpreting the sodium lines detected in transmission spectra of exoplanetary atmospheres. Previous analyses employed the isothermal approximation and dealt only ...with the transit radius. By recognizing the absorption depth and the transit radius as being independent observables, we develop a theory for jointly interpreting both quantities, which allows us to infer the temperatures and number densities associated with the sodium lines. We are able to treat a non-isothermal situation with a constant temperature gradient. Our novel diagnostics take the form of simple-to-use algebraic formulae and require measurements of the transit radii (and their corresponding absorption depths) at line center and in the line wing for both sodium lines. We apply our diagnostics to the HARPS data of HD 189733b, confirm the upper atmospheric heating reported by Huitson et al., derive a temperature gradient of 0.4376 0.0154 K km−1, and find densities ∼1-104 cm−3.
The strong, nearly wavelength-independent absorption cross section of aerosols produces featureless exoplanet transmission spectra, limiting our ability to characterize their atmospheres. Here, we ...show that even in the presence of featureless spectra, we can still characterize certain atmospheric properties. Specifically, we constrain the upper and lower pressure boundaries of aerosol layers, and present plausible composition candidates. We study the case of the bloated Saturn-mass planet WASP-49 b, where near-infrared observations reveal a flat transmission spectrum between 0.7 and 1.0 m. First, we use a hydrodynamic upper-atmosphere code to estimate the pressure reached by the ionizing stellar high-energy photons at bar, setting the upper pressure boundary where aerosols could exist. Then, we combine HELIOS and Pyrat Bay radiative-transfer models to constrain the temperature and photospheric pressure of atmospheric aerosols, in a Bayesian framework. For WASP-49 b, we constrain the transmission photosphere (hence, the aerosol deck boundaries) to pressures above bar (100× solar metallicity), bar (solar), and bar (0.1× solar) as the lower boundary, and below bar as the upper boundary. Lastly, we compare condensation curves of aerosol compounds with the planet's pressure-temperature profile to identify plausible condensates responsible for the absorption. Under these circumstances, we find these candidates: (at 100× solar metallicity); Cr and MnS (at solar and 0.1× solar); and forsterite, enstatite, and alabandite (at 0.1× solar).
Extrasolar satellites are generally too small to be detected by nominal searches. By analogy to the most active body in the solar system, Io, we describe how sodium (Na i) and potassium (K i) gas ...could be a signature of the geological activity venting from an otherwise hidden exo-Io. Analyzing ∼a dozen close-in gas giants hosting robust alkaline detections, we show that an Io-sized satellite can be stable against orbital decay below a planetary tidal . This tidal energy is also focused into the satellite driving an ∼105 2 higher mass-loss rate than Io's supply to Jupiter's Na exosphere based on simple atmospheric loss estimates. The remarkable consequence is that several exo-Io column densities are, on average, more than sufficient to provide the ∼1010 1 Na cm−2 required by the equivalent width of exoplanet transmission spectra. Furthermore, the benchmark observations of both Jupiter's extended (∼1000 RJ) Na exosphere and Jupiter's atmosphere in transmission spectroscopy yield similar Na column densities that are purely exogenic in nature. As a proof of concept, we fit the "high-altitude" Na at WASP-49b with an ionization-limited cloud similar to the observed Na profile about Io. Moving forward, we strongly encourage time-dependent ingress and egress monitoring along with spectroscopic searches for other volcanic volatiles.
ABSTRACT
Atmospheric characterization of exoplanets from the ground is an actively growing field of research. In this context, we have created the ATMOSPHERIX consortium: a research project aimed at ...characterizing exoplanets atmospheres using ground-based high-resolution spectroscopy. This paper presents the publicly available data analysis pipeline and demonstrates the robustness of the recovered planetary parameters from synthetic data. Simulating planetary transits using synthetic transmission spectra of a hot Jupiter that were injected into real SPIRou observations of the non-transiting system Gl 15 A, we show that our pipeline is successful at recovering the planetary signal and input atmospheric parameters. We also introduce a deep learning algorithm to optimize data reduction which proves to be a reliable, alternative tool to the commonly used principal component analysis. We estimate the level of uncertainties and possible biases when retrieving parameters such as temperature and composition and hence the level of confidence in the case of retrieval from real data. Finally, we apply our pipeline onto two real transits of HD 189733 b observed with SPIRou and obtain similar results than in the literature. In summary, we have developed a publicly available and robust pipeline for the forthcoming studies of the targets to be observed in the framework of the ATMOSPHERIX consortium, which can easily be adapted to other high resolution instruments than SPIRou (e.g. VLT-CRIRES, MAROON-X, ELT-ANDES).
PDF
