Purpose Advanced anaplastic lymphoma kinase ( ALK) fusion-positive non-small-cell lung cancers (NSCLCs) are effectively treated with ALK tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs). However, clinical outcomes ...in these patients vary, and the benefit of TKIs is limited as a result of acquired resistance. Emerging data suggest that the ALK fusion variant may affect clinical outcome, but the molecular basis for this association is unknown. Patients and Methods We identified 129 patients with ALK-positive NSCLC with known ALK variants. ALK resistance mutations and clinical outcomes on ALK TKIs were retrospectively evaluated according to ALK variant. A Foundation Medicine data set of 577 patients with ALK-positive NSCLC was also examined. Results The most frequent ALK variants were EML4-ALK variant 1 in 55 patients (43%) and variant 3 in 51 patients (40%). We analyzed 77 tumor biopsy specimens from patients with variants 1 and 3 who had progressed on an ALK TKI. ALK resistance mutations were significantly more common in variant 3 than in variant 1 (57% v 30%; P = .023). In particular, ALK G1202R was more common in variant 3 than in variant 1 (32% v 0%; P < .001). Analysis of the Foundation Medicine database revealed similar associations of variant 3 with ALK resistance mutation and with G1202R ( P = .010 and .015, respectively). Among patients treated with the third-generation ALK TKI lorlatinib, variant 3 was associated with a significantly longer progression-free survival than variant 1 (hazard ratio, 0.31; 95% CI, 0.12 to 0.79; P = .011). Conclusion Specific ALK variants may be associated with the development of ALK resistance mutations, particularly G1202R, and provide a molecular link between variant and clinical outcome. ALK variant thus represents a potentially important factor in the selection of next-generation ALK inhibitors.
Summary Background Compared with traditional photon radiotherapy, proton radiotherapy irradiates less normal tissue and might improve health outcomes associated with photon radiotherapy by reducing ...toxic effects to normal tissue. We did a trial to assess late complications, acute side-effects, and survival associated with proton radiotherapy in children with medulloblastoma. Methods In this non-randomised, open-label, single-centre, phase 2 trial, we enrolled patients aged 3–21 years who had medulloblastoma. Patients had craniospinal irradiation of 18–36 Gy radiobiological equivalents (GyRBE) delivered at 1·8 GyRBE per fraction followed by a boost dose. The primary outcome was cumulative incidence of ototoxicity at 3 years, graded with the Pediatric Oncology Group ototoxicity scale (0–4), in the intention-to-treat population. Secondary outcomes were neuroendocrine toxic effects and neurocognitive toxic effects, assessed by intention-to-treat. This study is registered at ClinicalTrials.gov , number NCT00105560. Findings We enrolled 59 patients from May 20, 2003, to Dec 10, 2009: 39 with standard-risk disease, six with intermediate-risk disease, and 14 with high-risk disease. 59 patients received chemotherapy. Median follow-up of survivors was 7·0 years (IQR 5·2–8·6). All patients received the intended doses of proton radiotherapy. The median craniospinal irradiation dose was 23·4 GyRBE (IQR 23·4–27·0) and median boost dose was 54·0 GyRBE (IQR 54·0–54·0). Four (9%) of 45 evaluable patients had grade 3–4 ototoxicity according to Pediatric Oncology Group ototoxicity scale in both ears at follow-up, and three (7%) of 45 patients developed grade 3–4 ototoxicity in one ear, although one later reverted to grade 2. The cumulative incidence of grade 3–4 hearing loss at 3 years was 12% (95% CI 4–25). At 5 years, it was 16% (95% CI 6–29). Pediatric Oncology Group hearing ototoxicity score at a follow-up of 5·0 years (IQR 2·9–6·4) was the same as at baseline or improved by 1 point in 34 (35%) of 98 ears, worsened by 1 point in 21 (21%), worsened by 2 points in 35 (36%), worsened by 3 points in six (6%), and worsened by 4 points in two (2%). Full Scale Intelligence Quotient decreased by 1·5 points (95% CI 0·9–2·1) per year after median follow-up up of 5·2 years (IQR 2·6–6·4), driven by decrements in processing speed and verbal comprehension index. Perceptual reasoning index and working memory did not change significantly. Cumulative incidence of any neuroendocrine deficit at 5 years was 55% (95% CI 41–67), with growth hormone deficit being most common. We recorded no cardiac, pulmonary, or gastrointestinal late toxic effects. 3-year progression-free survival was 83% (95% CI 71–90) for all patients. In post-hoc analyses, 5-year progression-free survival was 80% (95% CI 67–88) and 5-year overall survival was 83% (95% CI 70–90). Interpretation Proton radiotherapy resulted in acceptable toxicity and had similar survival outcomes to those noted with conventional radiotherapy, suggesting that the use of the treatment may be an alternative to photon-based treatments. Funding US National Cancer Institute and Massachusetts General Hospital.
Most
-positive lung cancers will develop ALK-independent resistance after treatment with next-generation ALK inhibitors.
amplification has been described in patients progressing on ALK inhibitors, ...but frequency of this event has not been comprehensively assessed.
We performed FISH and/or next-generation sequencing on 207 posttreatment tissue (
= 101) or plasma (
= 106) specimens from patients with ALK-positive lung cancer to detect
genetic alterations. We evaluated ALK inhibitor sensitivity in cell lines with
alterations and assessed antitumor activity of ALK/MET blockade in ALK-positive cell lines and 2 patients with MET-driven resistance.
amplification was detected in 15% of tumor biopsies from patients relapsing on next-generation ALK inhibitors, including 12% and 22% of biopsies from patients progressing on second-generation inhibitors or lorlatinib, respectively. Patients treated with a second-generation ALK inhibitor in the first-line setting were more likely to develop
amplification than those who had received next-generation ALK inhibitors after crizotinib (
= 0.019). Two tumor specimens harbored an identical
rearrangement, one of which had concurrent
amplification. Expressing
in the sensitive H3122 ALK-positive cell line induced resistance to ALK inhibitors that was reversed with dual ALK/MET inhibition. MET inhibition resensitized a patient-derived cell line harboring both
and
amplification to ALK inhibitors. Two patients with ALK-positive lung cancer and acquired
alterations achieved rapid responses to ALK/MET combination therapy.
Treatment with next-generation ALK inhibitors, particularly in the first-line setting, may lead to MET-driven resistance. Patients with acquired
alterations may derive clinical benefit from therapies that target both ALK and MET.
The EML4-ALK fusion oncogene represents a novel molecular target in a small subset of non-small-cell lung cancers (NSCLC). To aid in identification and treatment of these patients, we examined the ...clinical characteristics and treatment outcomes of patients who had NSCLC with and without EML4-ALK.
Patients with NSCLC were selected for genetic screening on the basis of two or more of the following characteristics: female sex, Asian ethnicity, never/light smoking history, and adenocarcinoma histology. EML4-ALK was identified by using fluorescent in situ hybridization for ALK rearrangements and was confirmed by immunohistochemistry for ALK expression. EGFR and KRAS mutations were determined by DNA sequencing.
Of 141 tumors screened, 19 (13%) were EML4-ALK mutant, 31 (22%) were EGFR mutant, and 91 (65%) were wild type (WT/WT) for both ALK and EGFR. Compared with the EGFR mutant and WT/WT cohorts, patients with EML4-ALK mutant tumors were significantly younger (P < .001 and P = .005) and were more likely to be men (P = .036 and P = .039). Patients with EML4-ALK-positive tumors, like patients who harbored EGFR mutations, also were more likely to be never/light smokers compared with patients in the WT/WT cohort (P < .001). Eighteen of the 19 EML4-ALK tumors were adenocarcinomas, predominantly the signet ring cell subtype. Among patients with metastatic disease, EML4-ALK positivity was associated with resistance to EGFR tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs). Patients in the EML4-ALK cohort and the WT/WT cohort showed similar response rates to platinum-based combination chemotherapy and no difference in overall survival.
EML4-ALK defines a molecular subset of NSCLC with distinct clinical characteristics. Patients who harbor this mutation do not benefit from EGFR TKIs and should be directed to trials of ALK-targeted agents.
Small-cell lung cancer (SCLC) is an aggressive malignancy in which inhibitors of PARP have modest single-agent activity. We performed a phase I/II trial of combination olaparib tablets and ...temozolomide (OT) in patients with previously treated SCLC. We established a recommended phase II dose of olaparib 200 mg orally twice daily with temozolomide 75 mg/m
daily, both on days 1 to 7 of a 21-day cycle, and expanded to a total of 50 patients. The confirmed overall response rate was 41.7% (20/48 evaluable); median progression-free survival was 4.2 months 95% confidence interval (CI), 2.8-5.7; and median overall survival was 8.5 months (95% CI, 5.1-11.3). Patient-derived xenografts (PDX) from trial patients recapitulated clinical OT responses, enabling a 32-PDX coclinical trial. This revealed a correlation between low basal expression of inflammatory-response genes and cross-resistance to both OT and standard first-line chemotherapy (etoposide/platinum). These results demonstrate a promising new therapeutic strategy in SCLC and uncover a molecular signature of those tumors most likely to respond. SIGNIFICANCE: We demonstrate substantial clinical activity of combination olaparib/temozolomide in relapsed SCLC, revealing a promising new therapeutic strategy for this highly recalcitrant malignancy. Through an integrated coclinical trial in PDXs, we then identify a molecular signature predictive of response to OT, and describe the common molecular features of cross-resistant SCLC.
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Summary Background ALK gene rearrangement defines a new molecular subtype of non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC). In a recent phase 1 clinical trial, the ALK tyrosine-kinase inhibitor (TKI) crizotinib ...showed marked antitumour activity in patients with advanced, ALK-positive NSCLC. To assess whether crizotinib affects overall survival in these patients, we did a retrospective study comparing survival outcomes in crizotinib-treated patients in the trial and crizotinib-naive controls screened during the same time period. Methods We examined overall survival in patients with advanced, ALK-positive NSCLC who enrolled in the phase 1 clinical trial of crizotinib, focusing on the cohort of 82 patients who had enrolled through Feb 10, 2010. For comparators, we identified 36 ALK-positive patients from trial sites who were not given crizotinib (ALK-positive controls), 67 patients without ALK rearrangement but positive for EGFR mutation, and 253 wild-type patients lacking either ALK rearrangement or EGFR mutation. To assess differences in overall survival, we assessed subsets of clinically comparable ALK-positive and ALK-negative patients. Findings Among 82 ALK-positive patients who were given crizotinib, median overall survival from initiation of crizotinib has not been reached (95% CI 17 months to not reached); 1-year overall survival was 74% (95% CI 63–82), and 2-year overall survival was 54% (40–66). Overall survival did not differ based on age, sex, smoking history, or ethnic origin. Survival in 30 ALK-positive patients who were given crizotinib in the second-line or third-line setting was significantly longer than in 23 ALK-positive controls given any second-line therapy (median overall survival not reached 95% CI 14 months to not reached vs 6 months 4–17, 1-year overall survival 70% 95% CI 50–83 vs 44% 23–64, and 2-year overall survival 55% 33–72 vs 12% 2–30; hazard ratio 0·36, 95% CI 0·17–0·75; p=0·004). Survival in 56 crizotinib-treated, ALK-positive patients was similar to that in 63 ALK-negative, EGFR-positive patients given EGFR TKI therapy (median overall survival not reached 95% CI 17 months to not reached vs 24 months 15–34, 1-year overall survival 71% 95% CI 58–81 vs 74% 61–83, and 2-year overall survival 57% 40–71 vs 52% 38–65; p=0·786), whereas survival in 36 crizotinib-naive, ALK-positive controls was similar to that in 253 wild-type controls (median overall survival 20 months 95% CI 13–26 vs 15 months 13–17; p=0·244). Interpretation In patients with advanced, ALK-positive NSCLC, crizotinib therapy is associated with improved survival compared with that of crizotinib-naive controls. ALK rearrangement is not a favourable prognostic factor in advanced NSCLC. Funding Pfizer Inc, V Foundation for Cancer Research.
BRAF mutations are found in a subset of non-small cell lung cancers (NSCLC). We examined the clinical characteristics and treatment outcomes of patients with NSCLC harboring BRAF mutations.
Using DNA ...sequencing, we successfully screened 883 patients with NSCLC for BRAF mutations between July 1, 2009 and July 16, 2012. Baseline characteristics and treatment outcomes were compared between patients with and without BRAF mutations. Wild-type controls consisted of patients with NSCLC without a somatic alteration in BRAF, KRAS, EGFR, and ALK. In vitro studies assessed the biologic properties of selected non-V600E BRAF mutations identified from patients with NSCLC.
Of 883 tumors screened, 36 (4%) harbored BRAF mutations (V600E, 18; non-V600E, 18) and 257 were wild-type for BRAF, EGFR, KRAS, and ALK negative. Twenty-nine of 36 patients with BRAF mutations were smokers. There were no distinguishing clinical features between BRAF-mutant and wild-type patients. Patients with advanced NSCLC with BRAF mutations and wild-type tumors showed similar response rates and progression-free survival (PFS) to platinum-based combination chemotherapy and no difference in overall survival. Within the BRAF cohort, patients with V600E-mutated tumors had a shorter PFS to platinum-based chemotherapy compared with those with non-V600E mutations, although this did not reach statistical significance (4.1 vs. 8.9 months; P = 0.297). We identified five BRAF mutations not previously reported in NSCLC; two of five were associated with increased BRAF kinase activity.
BRAF mutations occur in 4% of NSCLCs and half are non-V600E. Prospective trials are ongoing to validate BRAF as a therapeutic target in NSCLC.
MET amplification activates ERBB3/PI3K/AKT signaling in
EGFR mutant lung cancers and causes resistance to EGFR kinase inhibitors. We demonstrate that MET activation by its ligand, HGF, also induces ...drug resistance, but through GAB1 signaling. Using high-throughput FISH analyses in both cell lines and in patients with lung cancer, we identify subpopulations of cells with
MET amplification prior to drug exposure. Surprisingly, HGF accelerates the development of
MET amplification both in vitro and in vivo. EGFR kinase inhibitor resistance, due to either
MET amplification or autocrine HGF production, was cured in vivo by combined EGFR and MET inhibition. These findings highlight the potential to prospectively identify treatment naive, patients with
EGFR-mutant lung cancer who will benefit from initial combination therapy.
► Rare MET-amplified cells exist in some EGFR-mutant lung cancers before treatment ► HGF induces resistance to tyrosine kinase inhibitors in EGFR-addicted cancers ► HGF accelerates MET amplification by expanding preexisting MET-amplified cells ► Analysis of pretreatment cancers identifies those poised to become MET amplified
Purpose: The anaplastic large cell kinase gene ( ALK ) is rearranged in ∼5% of lung adenocarcinomas within the Asian population. We evaluated the incidence and the characteristics
of ALK -rearranged ...lung adenocarcinomas within the western population and the optimal diagnostic modality to detect ALK rearrangements in routine clinical practice.
Experimental Design: We tested 358 lung adenocarcinomas from three institutions for ALK rearrangements by fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) and immunohistochemistry with and without tyramide amplification. The clinicopathologic characteristics
of tumors with and without ALK rearrangements were compared.
Results: We identified 20 (5.6%) lung adenocarcinomas with ALK rearrangements within our cohort of western patients. ALK rearrangement was associated with younger age ( P = 0.0002), never smoking ( P < 0.0001), advanced clinical stage ( P = 0.0001), and a solid histology with signet-ring cells ( P < 0.0001). ALK rearrangement was identified by FISH in 95% of cases and immunohistochemistry with and without tyramide amplification in
80% and 40% of cases, respectively, but neither FISH nor immunohistochemistry alone detected all cases with ALK rearrangement on initial screening. None of the ALK -rearranged tumors harbored coexisting EGFR mutations.
Conclusions: Lung adenocarcinomas with ALK rearrangements are uncommon in the western population and represent a distinct entity of carcinomas with unique characteristics.
For suspected cases, dual diagnostic testing, with FISH and immunohistochemistry, should be considered to accurately identify
lung adenocarcinomas with ALK rearrangement. (Clin Cancer Res 2009;15(16):5216–23)
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