Parenting plays a multifaceted role in adolescent development. In this article, we review studies based on an observational assessment of affective parenting behaviors collected as part of the ...longitudinal Orygen Adolescent Development Study and explore three ways that parenting may predict adolescent‐onset depression. Specifically, we review findings that observed affective parental behaviors prospectively predict depressive symptoms and the onset of depressive disorder, predict adolescent depression indirectly via emotion regulation, and interact with brain development to predict adolescent depression. Parents who express higher frequencies of aggression or lower frequencies of positivity, or who are more likely to respond negatively to their adolescents’ positive and aggressive behaviors, tend to have adolescents at greater risk for depression and suboptimal brain development. Accounting for the direct, indirect, and moderating effects of parenting may enable us to characterize more accurately the trajectories of adolescent development, which can inform prevention and early intervention efforts.
In this study, we investigated the prospective relationship between maternal behaviors observed during mother-adolescent interactions and the onset of major depressive disorder (MDD) between early ...and late adolescence (ages 12–18). Maternal expressions of emotion and maternal responses to their child’s expressions of emotion were both examined. Results demonstrated that higher rates of maternal aggressive behavior and lower rates of maternal positive behavior prospectively predicted MDD onset across adolescence. In addition, negative (i.e., aggressive and dysphoric) maternal responses to adolescents’ aggressive and positive behaviors predicted MDD onset. Maternal dysphoric behavior and the way mothers respond to adolescents’ dysphoria were not related to MDD onset. These results extend previous findings on the relationship between parenting behaviors and depression onset in early to midadolescence and suggest that maternal emotion socialization behaviors in early adolescence prospectively predict MDD onset across the entire course of adolescence.
Early adolescence (typically aged 9-15 years) is a period of dramatic developmental change, and individual differences in temperament is likely to be an important predictor of the success with which ...individuals negotiate this period of life. Moreover, early adolescent temperament cannot be adequately captured by measures designed for other age groups. This study examined the empirical validity of the proposed temperament factors of the Early Adolescent Temperament Questionnaire–Revised (EATQ-R) in a large representative sample of 2,453 early adolescents aged between 10 and 12 years of age, and compared it with models that include cross-loadings between items and first-order factors, as well as first- and second-order factors. Furthermore, the reproducibility of the factor structure established by using a cross validation approach. Adding cross-loadings to the EATQ-R fit the data substantially better, resulting in an overall good fit that the original EATQ-R model did not achieve. However, the conceptual interpretation of the first- and second-order factor structures were not substantially altered even with this addition of cross-loadings. Future research should establish the construct validity of the first- and second-order factors as measured by this empirically based factor structure.
A growing body of evidence suggests that parenting behaviors may affect child mental health via altering brain development. There is a scarcity of research, however, that has investigated ...associations between parenting behavior and brain structure using longitudinal magnetic resonance imaging. This study aimed to investigate associations between parenting behaviors and structural brain development across the transition from childhood to adolescence.
Participants were 246 children who provided 436 magnetic resonance imaging datasets covering the age range from 8 to 13 years. Parents (94% mothers) completed self-report measures of parenting behavior, and both children and parents reported on child mental health. Factor analysis was used to identify dimensions of parental behavior. Linear mixed-effects models investigated associations between parenting behaviors and age-related change in cortical thickness and surface area and subcortical volume. Mediation models tested whether brain changes mediated associations between parenting behaviors and changes in internalizing/externalizing symptoms.
Hypothesized associations between parenting and amygdala, hippocampal, and frontal trajectories were not supported. Rather, higher levels of parent harsh/inconsistent discipline were associated with decreases in surface area in medial parietal and temporal pole regions and reduced cortical thinning in medial parietal regions. Some effects were present in female but not male children. There were no associations between these neurodevelopmental alterations and symptoms.
This study provides insight into the links between parenting behavior and child neurodevelopment. Given the functions of implicated regions, findings may suggest that parental harsh/inconsistent discipline affects the development of neural circuits subserving sensorimotor and social functioning in children.
Burgeoning research suggests that parents can reduce the risk of anxiety and depression in their adolescents and that parental self‐efficacy (PSE) may be related to parental risk and protective ...factors for these disorders. As there are currently no measures available to assess PSE in relation to parenting behaviors that may reduce adolescent risk for depression and anxiety, we developed and validated a measure of PSE, the Parental Self‐Efficacy Scale (PSES). Using a sample of 359 parents and 332 adolescents (aged 12–15), the PSES was found to have high reliability, confirmatory factor analysis supported its validity, and most of the hypothesized relationships between the PSES and other measures of parenting practices and adolescent depressive and anxiety symptoms were supported.
Parenting behavior is thought to affect child brain development, with implications for mental health. However, longitudinal studies that use whole-brain approaches are lacking. In this study, we ...investigated associations between parenting behavior, age-related changes in whole-brain functional connectivity, and psychopathology symptoms in children and adolescents.
Two hundred forty (126 female) children underwent resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging at up to two time points, providing a total of 398 scans covering the age range 8 to 13 years. Parenting behavior was self-reported at baseline. Parenting factors (positive parenting, inattentive parenting, and harsh and inconsistent discipline) were identified based on a factor analysis of self-report parenting questionnaires. Longitudinal measures of child internalizing and externalizing symptoms were collected. Network-based R-statistics was used to identify associations between parenting and age-related changes in functional connectivity.
Higher maternal inattentive behavior was associated with lower decreases in connectivity over time, particularly between regions of the ventral attention and default mode networks and frontoparietal and default mode networks. However, this association was not significant after strict correction for multiple comparisons.
While results should be considered preliminary, they suggest that inattentive parenting may be associated with a reduction in the normative pattern of increased network specialization that occurs with age. This may reflect a delayed development of functional connectivity.
Background
Unaddressed family adversity has potentially modifiable, negative biopsychosocial impacts across the life course. Little is known about how Australian health and social practitioners ...identify and respond to family adversity in community and primary health settings.
Objective
To describe, in two Australian community health services: (1) the number of adversities experienced by caregivers, (2) practitioner identification of caregivers experiencing adversity, (3) practitioner response to caregivers experiencing adversity, and (4) caregiver uptake of referrals.
Methods
Survey of caregivers of children aged 0–8 years attending community health services in Victoria and New South Wales (NSW). Analysis described frequencies of caregiver self-reported: (1) experiences of adversity, (2) practitioner identification of adversity, (3) practitioner response to adversity, and (4) referral uptake. Analyses were sub-grouped by three adversity domains and site.
Results
349 caregivers (Victoria:
n
= 234; NSW:
n
= 115) completed the survey of whom 88% reported experiencing one or more family adversities. The median number of adversities was 4 (2–6). Only 43% of participants were directly asked about or discussed an adversity with a practitioner in the previous 6 months (Victoria: 30%; NSW: 68%). Among caregivers experiencing adversity, 30% received direct support (Victoria: 23%; NSW: 43%), and 14% received a referral (Victoria: 10%; NSW: 22%) for at least one adversity. Overall, 74% of caregivers accepted referrals when extended.
Conclusion
The needs of Australian families experiencing high rates of adversity are not systematically identified nor responded to in community health services. This leaves significant scope for reform and enhancement of service responses to families experiencing adversity.
Aim
The aims of this study were to evaluate user characteristics and the perceived usefulness of a set of online parenting guidelines to prevent adolescent depression and anxiety.
Methods
Upon ...downloading the online guidelines, users were invited to complete a brief demographic survey assessing user characteristics (Survey 1). Consenting respondents were emailed an evaluation survey 1 month later, which assessed perceived usefulness of the guidelines (Survey 2).
Results
Over 22 months, 2631 users completed Survey 1 and 233 completed Survey 2. Most users endorsed the usefulness of the guidelines, and most parent users reported at least a little improvement on their parenting. Users were favourable towards a web‐based parenting program as one way to improve the guidelines.
Conclusions
Findings suggest that the online guidelines may be a useful and sustainable universal prevention strategy for parents of adolescents.
Despite substantial evidence demonstrating numerous parental risk and protective factors for the development of adolescent depression and anxiety disorders, there is currently no single measure that ...assesses these parenting factors. To address this gap, we developed the
as a criterion-referenced measure of parental concordance with a set of evidence-based parenting guidelines for the prevention of adolescent depression and anxiety disorders. In this paper, we used a sample of Australian parents of adolescents to: (1) validate the PRADAS as a criterion-referenced measure; (2) examine parental concordance with the guidelines in the sample; and (3) examine correlates of parental concordance with the guidelines.
Seven hundred eleven parents completed the PRADAS, as well as two established parenting measures, and parent-report measures of adolescent depression and anxiety symptoms. Six hundred sixty adolescent participants (aged 12-15) also completed the symptom measures. Concordance with the guidelines was assessed via nine subscale scores and a total score. Reliability of the scores was assessed with an estimate of the agreement coefficient, as well as 1-month test-retest reliability. Convergent validity was examined via correlations between the scale and two established parenting measures.
One proposed subscale was removed from the final version of the scale, resulting in a total of eight subscales. Reliability was high for the total score, and acceptable to high for seven of the eight subscales. One-month test-retest reliability was acceptable to high for the total score. Convergent validity was supported by moderate to high correlations with two established measures of parenting. Overall, rates of parental concordance with the guidelines were low in our sample. Higher scores were associated with being female and higher levels of parental education. Greater parental concordance with the guidelines was associated with fewer symptoms of depression and anxiety in adolescent participants.
This initial validation study provides preliminary support for the reliability and validity of the PRADAS. The scale has potential for use in both clinical and research settings. It may be used to identify parents' strengths and potential targets for intervention, and as an outcome measure in studies of preventive parenting interventions.
Aim
Despite youth being the most common age group for onset of mental disorders, there is less knowledge on the benefits and harms of treatments in young people. In addition, efficacy data from ...randomized controlled trials may not generalize to how treatment works outside of research settings. This study aimed to investigate young people's perceived effectiveness of different treatments for mental health problems, the professionals who delivered these, and the experience of negative effects.
Methods
We developed a consumer report website where young people who were ever diagnosed with a mental disorder provided ratings on the helpfulness or harmfulness of different types of professionals, mental health treatments (medical, psychological complementary/alternative) and self‐help strategies, and whether they had experienced particular negative effects.
Results
Here, 557 young people aged 12–25 years, who were recruited from English‐speaking, high‐income countries, provided 1258 ratings of treatments. All treatments showed varied perceptions of effectiveness. Medical and psychological treatments were rated moderately helpful on average with low rates of harmfulness. Self‐help strategies were rated as being as helpful as professional treatments. Side effects related to the head or mind (e.g., concentration difficulties, inability to feel emotions, depression and irritability) were the most common across all types of medicines. For psychological treatments, treatment being too expensive and feeling worse at the end of a session were the most commonly reported negative effects.
Conclusions
Study findings may be a useful guide to clinicians, researchers, young people and their families about what is likely to work in real‐world settings.
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