Background
There are limited data on the characteristics of children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders (FASD) and their mothers from the general population in the United States.
Methods
During ...the 2012 and 2013 academic years, first‐grade children in a large urban Pacific Southwest city were invited to participate in a study to estimate the prevalence of FASD. Children who screened positive on weight, height, or head circumference ≤25th centile or on parental report of developmental concerns were selected for evaluation, along with a random sample of those who screened negative. These children were examined for dysmorphology and neurobehavior and their mothers or collateral sources were interviewed. Children were classified as fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS), partial fetal alcohol syndrome (pFAS), alcohol‐related neurodevelopmental disorder (ARND), or No FASD.
Results
A total of 854 children were evaluated; 5 FAS, 44 pFAS, 44 ARND, and 761 No FASD. Children with FAS or pFAS were more likely to have dysmorphic features, and 32/49 (65.3%) of those met criteria for neurobehavioral impairment on cognitive measures with or without behavioral deficits. In contrast, 28/44 (63.6%) of children with ARND met criteria on behavioral measures alone. Mothers of FASD children were more likely to recognize pregnancy later, be unmarried, and report other substance use or psychiatric disorders, but did not differ on age, socioeconomic status, education, or parity. Mothers of FASD children reported more drinks/drinking day each trimester. The risk of FASD was elevated with increasing number of drinks/drinking day prior to pregnancy recognition, even at the level of 1 drink per day (adjusted odds ratio 3.802, 95% confidence interval 1.634, 8.374).
Conclusions
Data from this general population sample in a large urban region in the United States demonstrate the variability of expression of FASD and point to risk and protective factors for mothers in this setting.
Among 854 first grade children evaluated for Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders (FASD) in a Pacific Southwest city from 2012 to 2013, 93 met criteria for a minimum prevalence of 18.8–22.6 per 1,000 children. Maternal age, SES and education were not associated with FASD, but later pregnancy recognition, being unmarried, other substance use, and history of psychiatric diagnoses were, suggesting strategies for prevention. Increasing number of drinks per drinking day before pregnancy recognition was associated with having a child who met criteria for FASD.
Two studies investigate the effect of stress on food choice. Experiment 1 demonstrates experimentally that stress causes changes in food choice away from healthy low fat foods (grapes) to less ...healthy high fat foods (M&Ms), confirming previous survey research. Experiment 2, a survey study, finds that more females than males report increasing food consumption when stressed. A much larger percentage of those who report increasing their food consumption when stressed (71%) are restrained eaters (i.e., dieters) than are people who undereat or who do not change the amount they eat when stressed (35%). The foods that they report overeating when stressed are foods they normally avoid for weight-loss or health reasons (i.e., highly caloric high fat snack foods). They report eating these foods to feel better. Both studies show that stress not only increases consumption in certain individuals but also shifts their food choice from lower fat to higher fat foods.
The study investigated whether balance and complexity (increased by the addition of color) in the presentation of food on a plate affect the attractiveness of the presentation much as those factors ...affect the attractiveness of works of art. In addition, the willingness to try the food and liking for the food in four presentations (monochrome-balanced, colored-balanced, monochrome-unbalanced, and colored-unbalanced) combining these two variables was measured. While color increased the attractiveness of the balanced presentation it did not increase the attractiveness of the unbalanced one. Subjects were more willing to try the monochrome than colored presentations. There was no effect of color or balance on liking for the flavor of the food. So, while manipulating color and balance in a food presentation affects its attractiveness, it does not alter how much one likes the flavor of the food.
► How food is plated is thought to affect liking for food but to date no empirical studies of this. ► We found that food is liked more when presented in a neat rather than a messy manner. ► Neatly ...presented food is seen as more expensive and from a higher quality restaurant. ► People think more care was taken in the preparation of the neatly presented food. ► Only animal-based food was judged as more contaminated when messy.
Two studies investigated the effect that the arrangement of food on a plate has on liking for the flavor of the food. Food presented in a neatly arranged presentation is liked more than the same food presented in a messy manner. A third study found that subjects expected to like the food in the neat presentations more than in the messy ones and would be willing to pay more for them. They also indicated that the food in the neat presentations came from a higher quality restaurant and that more care was taken with its preparation than the food in the messy presentations. Only the animal-based food was judged as being more contaminated when presented in a messy rather than a neat way. Neatness of the food presentation increases liking for the taste of the food by suggesting greater care on the part of the preparer. Two mechanisms by which greater care might increase liking are discussed.
Psychotropic medications target glycogen synthase kinase 3β (GSK3β), but the functional integration with other factors relevant for drug efficacy is poorly understood. We discovered that the ...suggested psychiatric risk factor FK506 binding protein 51 (FKBP51) increases phosphorylation of GSK3β at serine 9 (pGSK3β(S9)). FKBP51 associates with GSK3β mainly through its FK1 domain; furthermore, it also changes GSK3β's heterocomplex assembly by associating with the phosphatase PP2A and the kinase cyclin-dependent kinase 5. FKBP51 acts through GSK3β on the downstream targets Tau, β-catenin and T-cell factor/lymphoid enhancing factor (TCF/LEF). Lithium and the antidepressant (AD) paroxetine (PAR) functionally synergize with FKBP51, as revealed by reporter gene and protein association analyses. Deletion of FKBP51 blunted the PAR- or lithium-induced increase in pGSK3β(S9) in cells and mice and attenuated the behavioral effects of lithium treatment. Clinical improvement in depressive patients was predicted by baseline GSK3β pathway activity and by pGSK3β(S9) reactivity to ex vivo treatment of peripheral blood mononuclear lymphocytes with lithium or PAR. In sum, FKBP51-directed GSK3β activity contributes to the action of psychotropic medications. Components of the FKBP51-GSK3β pathway may be useful as biomarkers predicting AD response and as targets for the development of novel ADs.
•A meal (starch, vegetable, meat, sauce) was plated more or less attractively•How attractively food is plated can affect liking for the flavor of the food•Attractive food presentation increases ...liking of food flavor•All foods but vegetables were liked more when plated attractively
Diners in a restaurant were served the same meal (composed of a sautéed chicken breast with a fines herbes sauce, brown rice pilaf, and sautéed green beans with toasted almonds served on a round white china plate). The same food was presented in two different arrangements on two different nights. Although the two presentations were judged as equally “neat”, one was judged as more attractive. Subjects reported liking the food on the plate (when all items were judged together) more when it was presented in the more attractive than the less attractive manner. When food items were judged separately, subjects reported liking the chicken and the sauce significantly more when presented in the more attractive manner. Subjects also reported more positive responses to the brown rice pilaf when presented in the more attractive plating style. How attractively food is plated can affect liking for the flavor of the food and could be used to increase acceptance of “healthy” foods.
The effect of color on orthonasal and retronasal odor intensities was investigated. When odorants were smelled orthonasally (i.e., through the nostrils), color enhanced odor intensity ratings, ...consistent with previous reports. However, when odorants were smelled retronasally (i.e., the odorous solution was put in the mouth), color reduced odor intensity ratings. These different effects of color on odor intensity (i.e., enhancement orthonasally and suppression retronasally) appear to be the result of route of olfactory stimulation rather than of any procedural artifact. This supports previous reports that retronasal and orthonasal odors are perceived differently.
Four experiments found that the colors people choose as corresponding to the odors of fine fragrances are influenced by the perceived masculinity/femininity of those fragrances. Experiment 1 examined ...the colors chosen for 3 male and 3 female fragrances. The pattern of colors chosen for female fragrances differed from that for male fragrances. Experiments 2 and 3 found that colors assigned to 2 unisex fragrances depend on whether subjects thought that the fragrances were male or female fragrances. Experiment 4, by labeling unisex fragrances as male or female, showed that this difference in color selection was the result of subjects' thinking that a fragrance is a male or female fragrance. Thinking of the masculinity/femininity of a fragrance influences the selection of colors that corresponds to these odors.
Three studies investigated the effects of extreme context stimuli and categorization on hedonic contrast by having subjects judge the attractiveness of faces. Experiment 1 demonstrated hedonic ...contrast in both directions by using 2 sets of stimuli presented in different orders. Preceding moderately unattractive faces with moderately attractive faces made the unattractive faces more unattractive. When the order of presentation was reversed, the moderately attractive faces became more attractive. Experiment 2 found that this hedonic contrast was eliminated when the moderately attractive faces were replaced with extremely attractive faces. Experiment 3 showed that even with those 2 sets of extremely different stimuli, hedonic contrast occurred if subjects were instructed to think of both sets of stimuli as belonging to the same category. These findings, using hedonic judgments, parallel Sarris's (1967, 1968) finding with weights that when 2 sets of stimuli are too different in the dimension being judged, no contrast occurs. They also lend support to his explanation for this result. When the 2 sets of stimuli are too different they are not seen as belonging to the same category. They are therefore not compared, and contrast does not occur. The authors propose that these principles might apply to contrast in all settings. (Contains 2 footnotes.)
Certain colors are seen as corresponding to, and thus appropriate to, certain odors (e.g., red for cherry odor). When colors accompany odors, our perceptions of the odors are changed. Appropriate ...colors often affect our perception of the odors differently from inappropriate colors. This paper discusses the literature on color–odor correspondences including possible causes of these correspondences. It then reviews findings on the influence of color on odor identification, odor discrimination, odor intensity, and odor pleasantness. Color's effect on both orthonasal and retronasal olfaction is discussed. A model for how color exerts its effects on odor is proposed.
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