Francisco de Zurbarán was one of the greatest painters of the Spanish Golden Age, with artworks scattered all over the world. Unfortunately, there are hardly any exhaustive studies on the pigments ...that he used. In this work, four canvas paintings attributed to the Zurbarán Workshop were studied. Each of them presents the figure of a different saint in a particular isolation scene: Saint Bruno, Saint Francis of Assisi, Saint Dominic of Guzman, and Saint Peter Martyr. Nevertheless, the painting of Saint Peter Martyr shows superior quality in both technique and colours, so it is not clear whether this canvas was also made by the Workshop or by Zurbarán himself, as some art historians claim. Coinciding with conservation and restoration works, the paintings were initially analysed with non-invasive techniques such as ultraviolet photography (UV), infrared reflectography (IRR) and X-ray fluorescence (XRF) to determine the characterization of the pigments. Those studies were complemented by stratigraphic analysis of some extracted samples with optical microscopy (OM) and scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (SEM-EDX). Among a number of results obtained, we found significant differences between the pigment palette used in Saint Peter Martyr and the other paintings, supporting the hypothesis that this painting was done by Zurbarán himself instead of his workshop. These results could also help to distinguish other authentic paintings by the master's hand from very similar paintings by his workshop or by other artists.
One of the most important artistic circles in the first half of the fifteenth-century in Austria was the so-called 'Older Villach's workshop', founded by Frederic of Villach, a painter who was ...considered a master of fresco technique. A technical study was made of a number of wall painting cycles by the workshop of Frederic of Villach, first, to gain a broader knowledge of the painting techniques employed, and second, to allow comparison with a further group of wall paintings in Slovenia, which are stylistically related to this workshop and have been studied previously. Of special interest were artworks attributed to Frederic's son Johannes of Ljubljana and a number of other anonymous painters that show important similarities to Frederic's works. Samples of plasters and pigments were analysed by optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and X-ray diffraction. An important difference in the composition of plasters was discovered between the selected artistic groups. The palette used comprised predominantly earth and other mineral pigments. The construction of the paintings from incisions and preparatory drawings to the final modelling is basically similar and shows workshop connections. The principal painting technique was a fresco. The results contribute to a wider knowledge concerning the materials and techniques employed in gothic wall paintings in the Alpine region and offer new information that can be used to inform the future conservation of these selected wall paintings.
The Archbishop’s Palace of Seville harbours an important art collection with mostly works by great Renaissance and Baroque artists. However, the authorship of some paintings is unknown, and, in a few ...cases, there is an interest in discovering the painter due to the quality of the artwork. As a first step for this purpose, a systematic analysis procedure has been established using non-destructive techniques, such as UV photography and IR reflectography, to locate interventions and underpaintings, as well as X-ray fluorescence to identify original pigments and those of later interventions. The study following this established protocol is presented with the example of two paintings by unknown authors. They were made in different centuries representing, consequently, different styles. UV images showed several retouches, while IR reflectography revealed under-drawing and composition corrections (pentimenti). Furthermore, XRF identified the pigments applied in the production of the different colours and tonalities, allowing to characterise the artist’s palette, whose pigments generally agree with the dates when the artworks were produced. This study resulted in valuable information on painting materials and techniques, which will be useful in the search for authorships, among others.
The purpose of the present study was analysis of plasters used as supports for mural paintings carried out by what was known as 'Older Villach's workshop' and its followers, active in the first half ...of the fifteenth century in Carinthia (Southern Austria) and Slovenia. The composition of plasters, the number of layers, the application of giornatas and a possible use of lime-wash was of interest, as was the comparison of results obtained, in order to establish a possible technical characterization and connection among the selected wall cycles that show an important stylistic relationship. Small samples were analysed by OM, SEM-EDX and XRD. The results revealed significant differences in the composition of plasters that can roughly divide the murals into two groups. The first group, starting with works by 'Older Villach's workshop' and its founder Frederic of Villach, is characterized by plasters made of lime and sand, while the second, starting with Frederic's son, Johannes of Ljubljana, shows a composition of lime and crushed marble or lime-rock. Intonaco was applied everywhere by the system of giornatas, while lime-wash was rarely used. The analyses also made it possible to confirm/reject authorship hypotheses previously suggested by art historians.
During the recent restoration of two large‐dimension paintings by Murillo, entitled “Miracle of the loaves and fishes” and “Moses and the water from the rock of Horeb,” several studies about the ...materials employed for their execution were carried out. Macro X‐ray fluorescence scanning technique was performed on both works complemented by point X‐ray fluorescence and stratigraphic analyses, in order to characterize the different components of the paintings (i.e., ground layer, pigments, and binders). The results allowed us to better elucidate Murillo painting technique and his creative process. Ground layer was prepared in the usual fashion of the artist, using earths, calcium carbonate, iron oxide pigments, and white lead. The polichromy is composed of lead white mixed with various pigments, depending on the colour tone to be obtained in the pictorial composition: Red and yellow ochres, vermilion, azurite, smalt, and lead‐tin yellow were the main pigments identified during our study. Finally, the presence of previous conservation treatments was evidenced by detecting pigments (zinc white, Prussian blue, etc.) not coeval with the artist palette.
Several medieval mural cycles in Austria were studied from the material and technical point of view, aiming to confirm (or reject) the art-historical hypothesis of their stylistic and workshop ...connection. These paintings can be found in the churches of Rust (“Fischerkirche”), Marz (Virgin’s Coronation parish church), Kobenz (St. Ruprecht parish church), Ofenbach (St. Veid parish church), and St. Johann am Steinfelde (St. John parish church). They were carried out around 1400 in the International Gothic style. Their workshop connections based on the style are doubtful, therefore, a material and technical study was carried out. Results showed different plaster composition, similar pigment palette, and diverse painting procedures. The murals in Marz, St. Johann, and the older register in Rust reveal important similarities such as plaster composition, predominant a fresco painting technique, the use of natural inorganic pigments, as well as many aspects of the painting procedure and modeling. On the contrary, those in Kobenz, Ofenbach, and the younger register in Rust differ considerably. The second group reveals lower quality in plaster composition, larger a secco parts, addition of synthetic pigments (Kobenz), and a rougher color modeling, indicating less skilled artists. The lower quality also results in a worse conservation state of these murals. The obtained results confirm the same workshop, but different artists in the first group, while in the second group no clear workshop/artist connection could be established.
Mural cycles in the churches of Plešivec, Čhyžné, and Štitnik from around 1400 were studied from the material and technical point of view. Stylistically, they show a mixture of Northern and Southern ...European stylistic currents, which were characteristic for the time around 1400 in East Central Europe. After a precise study in situ, an analysis of extracted samples was conducted by OM, SEM-EDX, and XRD. The plasters used for these murals were all made of lime and sand with different impurities; importantly, they different among each other in terms of their quality and stability. The pigments that were used in these murals were natural and organic: lime white, yellow and red earths, malachite, and azurite were identified, and some pigment degradations were also pointed out. The principal technique is a fresco, but all murals were finished a secco in different proportions, using an organic binder. Painting procedures and modelling were also studied, revealing a strong difference among all three cycles. The painting technique does not always correspond to the style.
Francisco Pacheco (1564–1644) was one of the most important Spanish painters, the author of the famous treatise Art of Painting, and a founder of Seville art school. His painting La Inmaculada (1610) ...forms part of the important art collection in the Archbishop’s Palace in Seville and represents the first realization of a new iconography, established by Pacheco. Later, he carried out several paintings with the same subject which are today in different collections. As part of a larger project, La Inmaculada was recently restored and analysed. The characterization of materials and painting procedures was carried out applying noninvasive in situ analysis by ultraviolet fluorescence (UVF), infrared reflectography (IRR), and X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (XRF). Results revealed many retouches, probably from different periods, as well as some pentimenti in the composition. Chemical analysis indicates a preparation made of Seville clay, lead white and some calcite on an animal glue layer, according to Pacheco’s own treatise, and a corresponding pigment palette for the 17th century: lead white, yellow and red earths, lead–tin yellow, vermilion, azurite, smalt, a copper-based green, umber, and bone black. Furthermore, modern pigments such as titanium and zinc whites, chrome green, and cadmium yellow were also identified as results of later interventions.
With occasion of the “Murillo’s year” (fourth centenary of his birth), the Andalusian Institute for Cultural Heritage (Instituto Andaluz de Patrimonio Histórico) received the request from a private ...collector for the restoration and authentication of a
bozzetto
of the Murillo´s painting entitled
Moses and the water from the rock of Horeb
. During the intervention, several studies on the materials employed were carried out—on the
bozzetto
and on the final large dimension painting, to characterize the different components of the paintings (ground layer, pigments and binders), as well as to confirm/reject the authenticity of the
bozzetto
. After a detailed general inspection using multispectral techniques (visible, UV, IRR) some
pentimenti
were discovered. In addition, Macro X-ray fluorescence (MA-XRF) scanning technique was performed, complemented by point XRF and stratigraphic analyses. The results show that the ground layers were prepared in the usual fashion of the artist, using earths, calcium carbonate, iron oxide pigments and white lead. MA-XRF mapping allowed determining the spatial distribution and the combination of these pigments along the surface of both paintings. Results show that canvas, priming, binders, pigments and painting techniques of the
bozzetto
are compatible with those of the original painting, so we can conclude that most likely this is the original Murillo’s
bozzetto
.
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