Tit Livij: Od ustanovitve mesta Simoniti, Primož
Clotho (Ljubljana, Online),
09/2022, Letnik:
4, Številka:
1
Journal Article
Recenzirano
Odprti dostop
Že od vsega začetka je dobro znano, da so se po padcu Troje Ahajci surovo znesli nad preživelimi Trojanci, samo proti dvema, Eneju in Antenorju, so se zaradi starega gostinskega prijateljstva in ker ...sta se zmeraj zavzemala za mir in vrnitev Helene, odpovedali slehernemu vojnemu pravu. Nato je po raznih nezgodah Antenor z množicoEnetov, ki so bili zaradi upora pregnani iz Paflagonije in so, ker so pred Trojo izgubili kralja Pilajmena, iskali voditelja in bivališče, prišel v najbolj notranji zaliv Jadranskega morja. Eneti in Trojanci so pregnali Evganejce, ki so prebivali med morjem in Alpami, in zasedli njihovo ozemlje. Kraj, kjer so najprej stopili na kopno, se imenuje Troja in po njem so poimenovali Trojanski okraj. Vsemu ljudstvu je ime Veneti.
In mires, which occupy large areas of the boreal region, net ecosystem CO2 exchange (NEE) rates vary significantly over various timescales. In order to examine the effect of one of the most ...influencing variables, the water table depth, on NEE the general ecosystem model GUESS‐ROMUL was modified to predict mire daily CO2 exchange rates. A simulation was conducted for a lawn, the most common microtopographical feature of boreal oligotrophic minerotrophic mires. The results were validated against eddy covariance CO2 flux measurements from Degerö Stormyr, northern Sweden, obtained during the period 2001–2003. Both measurements and model simulations revealed that CO2 uptake was clearly controlled by interactions between water table depth and temperature. Maximum uptake occurred when the water table level was between 10 and 20 cm and the air temperature was above 15°C. When the water table was higher, the CO2 uptake rate was lower, owing to reduced rates of photosynthetic carbon fixation. When the water table was lower, NEE decreased owing to the increased rate of decomposition of organic matter. When the water table level was between 10 and 20 cm, the NEE was quite stable and relatively insensitive to both changes within this range and any air temperature changes above +15°C. The optimal water table level range for NEE corresponds to that characteristic of mire lawn plant communities, indicating that the annual NEE will not change dramatically if climatic conditions remain within the optimal range for the current plant community.
The individual-based stand-level model EFIMOD was used for large-scale simulations using standard data on forest inventories as model inputs. The model was verified for the case-study of field ...observations, and possible sources of uncertainties were analysed. The approach developed kept the ability for fine-tuning to account for spatial discontinuity in the simulated area. Several forest management regimes were simulated as well as forest wildfires and climate changes. The greatest carbon and nitrogen accumulations were observed for the regime without cuttings. It was shown that cuttings and wildfires strongly influence the processes of carbon and nitrogen accumulations in both soil and forest vegetation. Modelling also showed that the increase in annual average temperatures resulted in the partial relocation of carbon and nitrogen stocks from soil to plant biomass. However, forest management, particularly harvesting, has a greater effect on the dynamics of forest ecosystems than the prescribed climate change.
•ROMUL was applied with decomposition rate functions derived from a CO2 flux model.•A two-storage soil water model was developed with volumetric water content.•New elements enhance the description of ...the soil water limitation on decomposition.•New model improves soil carbon stock prediction in comparison with measured data.
The ROMUL decomposition model describes the flux of soil organic matter through the soil decomposition process separately for the organic layer (forest floor) and mineral soil. In the original ROMUL the effect of soil moisture on soil organic matter decomposition was described by using gravimetric soil water content, a parameter that is often difficult to obtain when the model is applied using continuous weather data. The new decomposition rate functions based on a soil respiration model use volumetric soil water content, replacing the original moisture functions with new ones. This paper also describes the development of a simple volumetric soil water model, with separate water storage compartments for the organic and mineral soil layers to better correspond with the structure of the ROMUL model. A volumetric soil model is also easier to adapt to various locations than the gravimetric soil water model.
The new decomposition rate functions employing the new soil water model were tested by re-simulating a previous application of the ROMUL model to a forest site representing conditions in Southern Finland. Whereas the original ROMUL model underestimated the steady-state soil carbon stock of the site, the new model structure considerably reduced the decomposition rates, and the revised soil carbon storage estimates are now in good agreement with the measured data.
The effect of intensified biomass extraction on forest ecosystems is a timely question since harvest residues are increasingly utilised to produce energy and the impacts of the changed management ...practises are not always well understood. We compared two different modelling approaches, the MOTTI-YASSO and the EFIMOD-ROMUL model combinations, with respect to the simulated impacts of the biomass extraction in final felling on subsequent biomass and soil carbon stocks. Simulations following the latest silvicultural recommendations over a rotation were made for six Finnish forest sites varying in fertility, tree species and latitude. Model-projected effect of the intensified biomass extraction was larger with EFIMOD-ROMUL than with MOTTI-YASSO. The soil model ROMUL projected slower decomposition of organic matter than YASSO at all studied sites, which made the effect of biomass extraction on soil larger with EFIMOD. The process-based model EFIMOD-ROMUL includes feedback from soil nutrient status to productivity. With EFIMOD-ROMUL, the intensified biomass extraction decreased slightly the simulated growth of the forests and thereby the biomass carbon stock and litter input to the soil. With the empirical MOTTI model, the intensity of the simulated biomass extraction did not affect forest growth. Our results underline the importance of the selection of the modelling approach when projecting the potential effects of forest management practises on forest carbon balance.
We have analyzed an influence of the traditional agricultural system techniques on the soil organic matter dynamics using the model of carbon and nitrogen cycling in forest ecosystems EFIMOD linked ...with the model of SOM dynamics ROMUL. Forest stands on the loamy soddy-podzolic soils (Alfisoils) located in the Central European Russia have been taken for the case study. The following land-use management scenarios were simulated: (a) slash-and-burn system with 3 years for crops and 120, 60 and 25 years for forest; (b) three-field crop rotation system with organic fertilization (dung) every 3 and 9 years and the same rotation without fertilization; and (c) short-term field-forest shifting system with 10 years for crops and 10 and 25 years for forest. Analysis of the results showed that the frequency of agricultural use in mixed field-forest land-use systems was crucial for soil organic matter dynamics. Under the short interval between agriculture, the stocks of all soil organic matter pools decreased. Under all scenarios except the three-field crop rotation with fertilization and the slash-and-burn system with 120 years for forest, a strong reduction of soil organic matter occurred after 30–130 years of the agricultural impacts. The highest reduction rates were modelled under the short-term field-forest shifting system and three-field rotation without fertilization. Fertilization led to stabilization of soil organic matter pools and gave a possibility for a long time stable agricultural use.
A typical feature of the boreal forest landscape is a gradient from dry to wet sites, with associated increases in the depth of the soil organic layers. In this study, the coupled ecosystem–soil ...biogeochemistry model GUESS–ROMUL is used to explore how the specific features of soil organic matter decomposition and vegetation dynamics account for an observed difference between the soils formed under contrasting moisture conditions. Two sites, one mesic and one mesic-to-wet, representative of the natural forest in Northern Sweden, are simulated. In addition to the assumptions underlying the GUESS–ROMUL model, it is assumed that the fire frequency was higher at the mesic site. The model shows that with a natural fire regime, the soil organic layers at the mesic-to-wet site store 6.0
kg
C
m
−2 compared to 3.1
kg
C
m
−2 at the mesic site. Forty-seven percent of the difference between the sites in this respect is explained by suppressed decomposition under higher moisture conditions, 37% by the decreased litter input into the soil (more frequently disturbed ecosystems have lower productivity) and 16% by direct consumption of the forest floor in fires. It is predicted that due to anthropogenic fire suppression the organic soil layers of mesic sites will, in the future, sequester carbon at an average rate of 0.0103
kg
C
m
−2
year
−1 and have an equilibrium storage capacity of 5.4
kg
C
m
−2. For the mesic-to-wet site, the model predicts an extremely slow sequestration rate of 0.0022
kg
C
m
−2
year
−1. The effect of increased precipitation on the carbon storage at the landscape level is also investigated.
Soil organic matter (SOM) dynamics is an important pool in biological turnover of carbon and other elements of plants nutrition in forest ecosystems. Problems at its modelling are: quantification of ...SOM fractions which are decomposing with specific rates; description of humification, obtaining dependencies of SOM rates of transformation in dependence on external factors. Different methods of fractionating of SOM are now in use based on different solubility of fractions/ This approach presents difficulties at model's initialization. We expanded a model of SOM dynamics ROMUL based on successive stages of mineralization and transformation of fresh litter, which correspond to SOM pools in horizons L, F and H of forest floor. A1 et al. are horizons in mineral soil. Rates of transformation of one SOM pool into another in these horizons can be obtained from experimental data. The dynamics of N, Ca and Mg is described using main equations of SOM transformations with inserting of additional constants or functions as independent multipliers for rates of transformation. Pools of elements available for plants nutrition, and some intermediate pools such as secondary soil minerals have been added to the model. New ROMUL has been successfully applied to ICP Forest plots in Russia.
From the first reference to Romulus by Alcimus, a historian from the mid-fourth century BC, where the hero appears alone, down to the age of Augustus, the story of the foundation of Rome underwent ...considerable plot changes. The two most important are, firstly, Romulus' later role not merely as a conditor urbis, but - in keeping with the Hellenistic tradition of ktiseis poleon - mainly as a creator gentis and a model of the new Roman, who can subsequently embody a new ethnic identity; and, secondly, the later dichotomy of the founders. The interpretation of the Roman foundation myth must be therefore closely associated with the symbolism of numbers - one founder as opposed to twin founders - as it is reflected in different socio-political and historical contexts. In addition to shaping society, myth also documents all its changes. In the context of replacing a single founder with twin founders, Romulus and Remus, the first critical change is the introduction of Remus. The twin founders imply a double community, a notion which becomes meaningful in Rome only after the plebeian achievement of political equality between 367 and 342 BC. The second significant change is the death of Remus, involving the notion of a foundation sacrifice, for which the evidence points to the crisis of 296 BC. The foundation story also serves as an explanation model for the events in the Late Roman Republic. Horace's pessimistic Seventh Epode evokes the foundation crime of fratricide to explain the tragic pattern of civil wars. As Romulus' successors, the Romans are also heirs to his crime, to the scelus fraternae necis, from which they cannot escape. Moreover, Romulus as a creator gentis represents a potential source for the Roman change of identity, which was regarded as coincidental with the foundation act. This recurring theme is elaborated first in Ennius' Annals and later in Vergil's Aeneid and Horace's Third ‘Roman Ode’. The central motif is Ennius’ concilium deorum and its discussion of Romulus' apotheosis, which is opposed by Juno on account of his Trojan identity. Juno, the traditional mythological opponent of the Trojans, demands in exchange for Romulus' apotheosis a break with the old Trojan concept. This break is to be reflected in a new name for the city, which shall be named after its founder, chosen by the auspicium contest. The auspicium thus represents the divine election of the Trojans' legitimate successors, while Romulus' apotheosis symbolically fulfils the idea of a cosmic Roman empire predicted in Juno's Roman Ode speech. The two mythological exempla of Troy and Romulus serve as two opposing models, Troy being the eastern, un-Roman principle, and Romulus the embodiment of the Roman principle. In effect, they present the conflict of two different value systems, which is based on moral criteria and a negative characterisation of the eastern principle. These models are intended to guide the political, ideological and moral assessments of Augustan readers faced with watershed historical events. The contemporary allusions can hardly escape an attentive modern reader. The main characteristic that defines the Roman foundation story as a myth is precisely its sensitivity to social and political changes - a prerequisite for its transmission and continuity, as well as an indicator of its social relevance at different moments in history.