O kas toliau? Kubilius, Vytautas
Problemos,
09/2014, Letnik:
35
Journal Article
Odprti dostop
Straipsnyje svarstomos lietuvių literatūrologijos ateities perspektyvos, jos metodologijos atnaujinimo galimybės. Teigiama, kad tyrinėjant literatūrą svarbiausia nepamiršti, jog rašytojo ...individualybė neprivalo ištirpti globaliniuose literatūros proceso apibendrinimuose ir kūrinio struktūros analizėje. Ji yra viską lemiantis kūrinio subjektas. Joje kryžiuojasi mūsų visuomeninės istorinės raidos keliai ir nacionalinio mentaliteto savybės. Naujųjų tyrinėjimo metodų tikslas turėtų būti ne universalių teorijų iliustravimas lietuvių literatūros pavyzdžiais, bet jos savitos logikos atvėrimas. Todėl istorinė poetika yra galbūt reikalingiausia būsimų fundamentalių darbų sritis. Pabrėžiama tarmės substrato vaidmens ištyrimo būtinybė. Istorinė poetika, tirdama mūsų meninio mąstymo formuotes, turėtų aiškinti jų genezę, raidą bei savitumą pasaulinės literatūros kontekste, nevengdama genetinių ir tipologinių lyginimų. Aptariama šiuolaikinės literatūrologijos metodologija.
he purpose of this research to describes the aesthetic value in the physical structure used in the lyrics of Soegi Bornean’s Asmalibrasi song and describes the implications of this research for ...learning Indonesian in high school. This research uses a qualitative description. The data source in this research is obtained from the lyrics of Asmalibrasi song by Soegi Bonean. This research uses documentary techniques, writing techniques and reading techniques. The theory used in the physical structure of Asmalibrasi song lyrics such as diction, imagery and language style used in conveying the meaning of an Asmalibrasi song lyric. This research is applied to Indonesian language learning in high school class X phase E of the Merdeka Curriculum. Implications for students' understanding of Indonesian language, cultural understanding, level of listening to lyrics and understanding meaning, and introduction to kebhinekaan Indonesia.
The paper consists of four parts. The introductory part focuses to the argument made by the Slovenian literary theorist M. Juvan who claims that literary theory should be restructured as the theory ...of literary discourse, based on the “discourse turn” in the contemporary stylistics. The paper further discusses the style in the field of discourse by analysing ambiguous relationship between style and discourse, and by introducing the concept of style as an identity marker (Juvan). This is followed by the concept of the stylistics of (inter)discourse based on the term interdiscursivity. The notion of interdiscursivity is discussed through its different applications and definitions (Kovačević and Badurina, Fairclough, Pecheux, Link), and its distinctiveness in relation to intertextuality. The final part of the paper offers an analysis of interdiscursivity in selected literary texts, with special emphasis on the texts of literary avant-garde (Slabinac), and relates interdiscursivity to J. Ranciere’s politics of literature.
Na prvi pogled v novinarstvu sploh ni prostora za nezanesljive in nepreverjene informacije, a novinarski diskurz svoj status resnicnosti vendarle potrjuje precej drugace kot na primer znanstveni. ...Najveckrat sporoca o dogodkih in stanjih, do katerih javnost nima neposrednega dostopa in jih vecinoma tudi ne more eksperimentalno preveriti, zato jim lahko le zaupa (Slavko Splichal 1997: 337). Poleg tega pa ima poleg informativne tudi interpretativno vlogo (Manca Kosir, 1988), v njem so torej posredovana tudi mnenja, ki se od dejstev locijo prav po svoji subjektivnosti in nepreverljivosti (Van Dijk 1996). Zaupanje v novinarske informacije je tako nerazdruzljivo povezano z zaupanjem v tocnost, natancnost, nepristranskost, dobro obvescenost in interpretativno sposobnost novinarjev kot zbiralcev, odbiralcev in posrednikov informacij. Najvisje zaupanje novinar doseze, ce je sam prisostvoval dogodku (Mats Nylund 2003: 846) ali je »sam, z raziskovalnim delom in razumevanjem sirsega druzbenega konteksta seznanjen z dogajanjem«. Novinarji pogosto porocajo tudi o dogodkih, pri katerih sami niso bili udelezeni, oziroma stanjih, za katere sami niso strokovnjaki. V takih primerih je za doseganje naslovnikovega zaupanja, da se na sporoceno lahko zanese, potrebna informacija o tem, kako je novinar informacijo dobil (Tomo Korosec 1998: 196). Prav iz te okoliscine, ki je kodificirana tudi v temeljnih dokumentih novinarske profesionalne identitete, izvira potreba po sklicevalnih avtomatizmih: sporocanjskih sredstvih, ki delujejo kot jezikovna manifestacija novinarjevega stika z virom informacije (Verica Rupar 2006: 130). Ker je zaupanje naslovnikov v teh primerih povezano z njihovo oceno verodostojnosti in kompetentnosti vira, se novinarji navadno sklicujejo na uradne vire, ki jih javnost pozna in ceni kot verodostojne in kompetentne (Vesna Laban 2004: 209, Ines Drame 1994: 306). Novinarjeva dolznost sklicevanja na vir je lahko izjemoma krsena zaradi dolznosti do spostovanja zaupnosti vira informacij (Poler 1997: 123, 165), toda tudi v teh primerih mora novinar informacijo preveriti pri vec virih in po moznosti pridobiti takega, ki pristane na identifikacijo (Poler 1997: 124-130). Potemtakem bi moral biti odstotek sklicevalnosti glede na nezanesljivost, ki izhaja novinarjevega dvoma o verodostojnosti in kompetentnosti vira ter posledicno zanesljivosti posredovane informacije, zelo nizek, saj je novinar dolzan pridobiti kredibilne vire in zanesljivost informacij nujno preveriti pri vec virih. Moznost tovrstnega sklicevanja pa kljub vsemu mora obstajati, saj se, na videz paradoksalno, prav tako utemeljuje v novinarjevi odgovornosti do naslovnikov: ce se novinar kljub vsemu odloci objaviti informacijo, ki jo oceni kot ne povsem zanesljivo, mora namrec na to posebej opozoriti. Gre za primere, ko novinar presodi, da bi zamolcanje se ne povsem preverjenih informacij, ce bi se naknadno izkazale za resnicne, bilo za javno dobro skodljivejse kot objava morebitnih neresnicnih informacij. Nasprotje tega je javni interes, na katerega se sklicuje predvsem, a ne zgolj, tabloidni tisk, ko v prvi vrsti uresnicuje svoje ekonomske interese, tu javni interes ni izenacen s tem, kar javnost mora vedeti, ampak s tistim, kar javnost hoce vedeti (Poler Kovacic 2005: 111, 183). Avtomatizem, ki je utemeljen na eticni potrebi obvestiti javnost o nezanesljivosti porocanega, je v tem kontekstu tako pogosto zlorabljen za objavljanje senzacionalisticnih, nepreverjenih in ne nujno resnicnih informacij. Vrste take rabe bodo podrobneje analizirane in komentirane v podpoglavju o ugotovitvah raziskave. Korpusno gradivo je pokazalo, da je poleg sporocanjskih vlog clenkovne zveze naj bi in deleznika na -l, ki jih opisuje Koroscev model, mogoce v slovenskem porocevalstvu razpoznati se dve rabi te zveze in z njima dopolniti ta model. Prva izraza sklicevanje na vir, ki v svoji izjavi ubesedi namero, torej nekaj, kar vir predvideva, da se bo v prihodnosti zgodilo, in to izrazi z zvezo naj bi + del. -l, zato ne gre za nepotrebno dvojno sklicevanje, temvec sklicevanje na namero. Druga raba je novinarjevo distanciranje od virovih interpretacij in mnenj. Na pogostnost rabe za sklicevanje na namero je mogoce sklepati iz dejstva, da je skoraj polovica vseh zadetkov v pregledanem vzorcu sobesedilno referirala na prihodnost. Ker je sklicevanje na namero pogosto upovedeno v predmetnem odvisniku glavnega stavka s sklicevalnim glagolom, se postavlja vprasanje, ali ga je mogoce interpretirati kot poseben sklicevalni avtomatizem, kjer zveza naj bi + deleznik na -l nima vloge slabitve gotovostne naklonskosti. Nekateri primeri rabe, ko je iz sobesedila mogoce razbrati, da je vir svojo izjavo upovedal kot trditev, in ne kot domnevo, iz sobesedila pa tudi ni razvidno, zakaj bi izjavo kot nezanesljivo oznacil novinar, napeljujejo na sklepanje, da zveza naj bi + del. na -l lahko opravlja zgolj funkcijo sklicevalnega avtomatizma, na da bi slabila gotovostno naklonskost dela povedi, ki ji sledi. Primeri take rabe so povezani predvsem s pojavljanjem ne-povednika v predmetnem odvisniku glavnega stavka s sklicevalnim glagolom. Z opazovanjem pogostnosti sopojavljanja te oblike z modalnimi clenki za slabitev in krepitev gotovostne naklonskosti te hipoteze ni mogoce potrditi. Najpogostejsa je kombinacija zveze s clenkom menda v primerih, ko vir, na katerega se novinar sklicuje, ni popolnoma identificiran ali pa gre kar za sklicevanje na govorice. V teh primerih obliki delujeta kot podvojeno izrazanje nezanesljivosti, s katerim se skusa novinar dodatno zascititi pred obtozbami o neresnicnem porocanju. Pri porocanju o neuradnih, se bolj pa nedokazanih dejanjih, sta v rabi morfemskega sklicevanja glede na nezanesljivost opazni dve skrajnosti. Po eni strani vsesplosna nereflektirana raba tudi tam, kjer ni potreben in bi jo bilo mogoce razloziti s pretirano skrbjo novinarjev za eticno korektno porocanje, po drugi strani pa zloraba za razsirjanje nepreverjenih in senzacionalisticnih informacij.
Ena glavnih zahtev gotskega žanra je izguba občutka za stvarnost. To značilnost, ki v veliko primerih vodi v strah ali celo grozo, je mogoče doseči predvsem z zatekanjem k čutom. V romanu Aura ...Carlosa Fuentesa opisovanje preseže meje percepcije čutov, saj bralec ni zgolj voden, ampak se, kot bi bil zapeljan, pusti voditi, očaran s čutno razvejanostjo, ki veje iz zapleta.
V študiji bomo pokazali, kako kromatičnost in čutna zaznavnost potencirata splošen smisel romana, hkrati pa razkrivata številne slogovne značilnosti, ki potrjujejo hermenevtično relevantnost opisanega. Izhajajoč iz podrobne študije uporabe jezika, bomo analizirali tvorjenje pripovedi s tehniko kromatične progresije, ki uspešno združuje percepcijo čutov in psihologijo glavnega junaka ter strne celo vrsto bralcu razpoložljivih gotskih občutkov.
V prispevku obravnavamo poskus Grigorija Vinokurja (1896-1947) in Charlesa Ballyja (1865-1947), da bi v prvih desetletjih dvajsetega stoletja, še pred delovanjem Praškega lingvističnega krožka, ...razvila stilistiko kot teoretično utemeljeno jezikoslovno disciplino. Oba jezikoslovca sta si prizadevala uveljaviti stilistiko kot uporabno znanost, a se njuna izhodišča in pojmovanje predmeta stilistike močno razlikujejo. Osvetlili bomo težave, ki jih odpirata oba pristopa in konteksta, v katerih sta njuni pojmovanji nastali.
The goal of the monograph ('Web texts and language on the Web (the case of blogs and Wikipedia in the Slovenian language)') entitled Web texts and language on the Web (the case of blogs and Wikipedia ...in the Slovenian language) is to give an overview, as complete as possible, of the topic of web texts, although its main part is limited to blog and Wikipedia texts, where, as it turns out, there is a need for placing the topic into a broader context of electronic texts. The first chapter treats the circumstances of the formation of the Web and its definition in relation to the Internet and other electronic media. In the second chapter, corpus and dictionary are presented in relation to the Web, especially in terms of web corpora, the current role of web search engines is discussed, as well as the use of the Web in lexicography. The third and the largest part of the monograph includes a detailed analysis of Slovenian language and texts, especially of the selected material obtained from blogs and Wikipedia.
Promišljanjima i stavovima hrvatskog polihistora Miroslava Krleže (1893–1981) o znamenitu njemačkom filozofu Immanuelu Kantu (1724–1804) i njegovu nauku dosad nije posvećena primjerena pozornost. ...Međutim, to ne znači da Krleža nije bio upućen u sadržaj i osobitosti Kantova nauka. Štoviše, u Krležinu opusu prisutne su brojne prosudbe o Kantu i njegovu učenju, pri čemu napominjemo da je Krleža napisao i dva teksta koja je u cijelosti posvetio Kantu: članak »O dvestogodišnjici rođenja Imanuela Kanta«, koji je otisnut 1924. godine, te neobjavljeni tekst naslovljen
Kant
, koji je sastavni dio Krležine rukopisne ostavštine i koji je najvjerojatnije nastao tijekom 1939. godine.Krležine prosudbe o Kantu moguće je sagledati iz različitih perspektiva. Pristup promišljanjima o temama i misliocima kojima je Krleža bio zaokupljen nerijetko nadilazi disciplinarne okvire, zbog čega njegov opus uvelike obilježava interdisciplinarnost.O Kantu i njegovu nauku Krleža se, očekivano, očitovao iz filozofske, posebice povijesnofilozofske, logičke, spoznajnoteorijske i etičke perspektive. Osim toga, Kanta i njegova učenja sagledao se i iz perspektivā književne stilistike, povijesti, politologije, antropologije, pedagogije i medicine. Pritom je iskazao upućenost u sadržaj brojnih Kantovih tekstova, posebice u sadržaj djela
Kritika čistoga uma
i djela
Prema vječnom miru
, ali i u sadržaj članka »Ideja opće povijesti s gledišta svjetskoga građanstva«, kao i članka »Nagađanja o početku povijesti čovječanstva«.Kada je sagledavao Kantovu filozofsku misao, Krleža je najčešće bio usredotočen na Kantov ‘kopernikanski obrat’ u načinu spoznaje materijalnih stvari. Iz perspektive književne stilistike Kant je isprva ocijenjen kao mislilac koji je pisao diletantski, da bi u konačnici bio ocijenjen kao mislilac koji je pisao u stilu svojega vremena: krilato i idejno uzvišeno. Kada je Kanta sagledavao iz perspektive povijesti, Krleža ga je razumijevao kao mislioca koji je obilježio 18. stoljeće, dok ga je iz perspektive politologije odredio kao pristalicu jakobinaca. Kada je iznosio antropološke i pedagoške nazore, Krleža je čovjekovu budućnost sagledavao vrlo pesimistično, jer je bio uvjeren da čovjek svoj odgoj i postupke neće temeljiti na Kantovim zamislima, pa tako ni na onima zabilježenima u djelu
Prema vječnom miru
. Naposljetku, kada je o Kantu i njegovu nauku promišljao iz perspektive medicine, zaključio je da su Kantove spoznaje o duševnim oboljenjima bliže skolastici nego renesansi.
The reflections and attitudes of the Croatian polymath Miroslav Krleža (1893–1981) on the famous German philosopher Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) and his teaching have not received adequate attention thus far. However, this does not mean that Krleža was not acquainted with the content and pecularities of Kant’s teaching. Moreover, Krleža’s opus contains numerous judgments of Kant and his teaching, noting that Krleža also wrote two texts entirely dedicated to Kant: the article “On the Occasion of the Bicentenary of Immanuel Kant’s Birth,” published in 1924, and an unpublished text entitled Kant, which is an integral part of Krleža’s manuscript legacy and which most probably originated during 1939. Krleža’s assessments of Kant can be viewed from different perspectives. The approach to reflections on topics and thinkers with which Krleža was preoccupied often went beyond disciplinary frameworks, which is why his opus is largely marked by interdisciplinarity. As expected, Krleža wrote about Kant and his teaching from a philosophical perspective, particularly from the perspectives of history of philosophy, logic, theory of knowledge and ethics. Moreover, he also viewed Kant and his teaching from the perspectives of literary stylistics, history, political science, anthropology, pedagogy and medicine. Thereby he expressed his knowledge of the content of numerous Kant’s texts, especially the content of the work Critique of Pure Reason and the work Toward Perpetual Peace, but also the content of the article “Idea for a Universal History from a Cosmopolitan Perspective,” as well as the article “Conjectural Beginning of Human History.” When reflecting on Kant’s philosophical thought, Krleža was most often focused on Kant’s ‘Copernican revolution’ in the way of comprehending material things. From the perspective of literary stylistics, Kant was initially judged as a thinker whose writing was dilettante, but was ultimately judged as a thinker who wrote according to the style of his time: winged and ideationally sublime. When he viewed Kant from the perspective of history, Krleža understood him as a thinker who marked the 18th century, while from the perspective of political science he defined him as a supporter of the Jacobins. When presenting his anthropological and pedagogical views, Krleža was very pessimistic about the future of man, since he was convinced that man would not base his upbringing and actions upon Kant’s ideas, including those recorded in his work Toward Perpetual Peace. Finally, when he considered Kant and his teaching from the perspective of medicine, he concluded that Kant’s knowledge of mental illness was closer to Scholasticism than to the Renaissance.
Provider: - Institution: - Data provided by Europeana Collections- The base of the culture of expression (speech and writing culture) is a literary and linguistic norm. It means respecting all ...language rules. The culture of written expression emphasizes functional approach to the issues of regularity and normativity. Theoretical base of the culture of written expression consists of functional grammar, functional stylistics and orthographic rules. The subject of this study included normative and stylistic characteristics of the culture of written expression of secondary school students who attend third and fourth grade of vocational schools and academically-oriented high schools in Serbia. Also we presented and analysed Serbian language and literature syllabuses for third and fourth grade in secondary schools, especially those parts concerning the teaching of the culture of written expression and stylistics and orthography (the number of classes provided for the teaching, the selection of teaching units, and the number of classes per academic year in secondary schools). We analysed the distribution of the culture of written expression and its two areas within the teaching process - stylistics and orthography - in the compulsory textbooks and handbooks for the above mentioned age. In addition, the paper examined the relationship between standard Serbian language and nonstandard language idioms in the written expression of Serbian secondary school students because the base of the culture of expression is the standard language in which the instruction is performed at all levels of education in Serbia. The primary goal of this work was to determine the quality of written expression of the students attending two final years of secondary schools and to draw attention to the students’ failures in the application of knowledge of stylistics and orthography in the written expression. One of the goals of this work was to show the weaknesses in the syllabuses as well as in textbooks and handbooks for the students of this age. Additionally, our goal was to estimate to what extent the standard of language and nonstandard idioms pervaded in the written expression of Serbian secondary school students. For the research corpus we used the data obtained in a survey we had conducted during April and May 2011 in twelve secondary schools in Belgrade, Novi Sad, Krusevac and Jagodina. The sample consisted of 583 students who attended third and fourth grades of high schools and vocational schools. The research corpus included: a) syllabuses - Serbian language for third and fourth grade of secondary school (high schools with either general, linguistic or mathematic core curriculum gymnasium, four-year vocational secondary schools), b) textbooks and handbooks for Serbian language for third and fourth grade of secondary schools, c) test with orthography questions g) questionnaire, d) students’ texts (research situation) f) secondary school students’ essays (test situation). The analysis of the syllabuses for the above mentioned age indicate the conclusion that the teaching of culture of written expression in secondary schools in Serbia is being carried out according to the tasks that are not fully adapted to the present time, since secondary school students attend the classes of the culture of expression according to educational programs that were written in the last decade of the last century (in 1991). Considering the presence of stylistics and orthography in syllabuses and textbooks for this age, we concluded that not enough attention had been paid to these two complementary areas of the culture of expression teaching. The extent to which secondary school students know the prescriptive rules of Serbian language is perhaps best shown by the fact that none of the students attending the final years of secondary school answered all the questions in the orthography test and the questionnaire without deviating from the standard language norm. Quantitative data indicate that there is no fundamental difference between high school and vocational school students; however, junior secondary school students had slightly better achievements than secondary school graduates. Observed at the level of entire corpus (orthographic test, texts/biographies, written tests), secondary school students often deviated from the orthographic norms when using punctuation and from the rules for connecting and separating words in writing, while less frequently they disregarded prescriptive rules on writing capital letters and abbreviations, as well as the rules for sound alternations and sound relationships. In the area of the syntax of verbs and sentences secondary school students made the most mistakes in the writing of the verb should, the possessive pronoun for every person when referring to the subject of a sentence, present tense of the verb to apologize, the imperative of the verb to bend, regarding the use of phrases preposition + infinitive, and preposition + adverb of place, in the writing of the adverb with in front of the instrumental case in a narrower sense, as well as when using the following structures: 1) to + present functioning as future and, 2) syllepsis phrase with the coordination of two prepositions - from and to, one of which is followed by a corresponding case while the other is not, 3) come to + genitive which occurred as a result of the process of decomposing the predicate. The analysis of normative aspects of the culture of expression of the secondary school students of final years clearly leads to the conclusion that one of the basic aims of cultural expression teaching, to prepare students to respect standard language rules in writing and to develop students' awareness of the importance of respecting the norms of the literary language, was not fully implemented. Therefore a purposeful and creative use of language was compromised. Also, the analysis of the stylistic aspects of the culture of written expression leads us to very similar conclusions. Within this thematic area we discussed functional and stylistic peculiarities of students’ texts and most frequent occurrence of figurative elements in academic writing tasks of secondary school students. Although secondary school students were required to write a biography, most of them showed no distinction between biography and autobiography, because a significant number of students wrote an autobiography, or a type of job application. Most of these texts significantly deviated from the norm of administrative functional style at the level of text structure, as well as at morphological, syntactic and lexical levels. To achieve a more striking manner of expression, students less often formulated tropes than figures in narrow sense. At the same time the linguistic aspect of figurative language in students’ written tests was more dominant than its aesthetic effectiveness. The most frequent processes of stylistic activation of text, i.e. the elements of stylistic devices in the analyzed material were: periphrasis, ellipse and syllepsis, epithets, accumulation, euphemism, comparison, pleonasm, tautology, stylistic devices of repetition, figures of harmonious contradictions, metaphor (mainly personification) and metonymy.- Osnovu kulture izražavanja (kulture govora i pisanja) čini književno jezička norma. To znači poštovanje svih jezičkih pravila. Kultura pismenog izražavanja u prvi plan stavlja funkcionalni prilaz pitanjima pravilnosti i normativnosti. Teorijsku bazu kulture pismenog izražavanja čine funkcionalna gramatika, funkcionalna stilistika i ortografska pravila. Predmet ovog rada obuhvata normativne i stilističke karakteristike kulture pismenog izražavanja srednjoškolaca koji pohađaju III i IV razred srednjih stručnih škola i gimnazija u Srbiji. Takođe su navedeni i analizirani nastavni planovi i programi za srpski jezik i književnost za III i IV razred u srednjim školama i to oni njihovi delovi koji se tiču nastave kulture pismenog izražavanja, odnosno nastave stilistike i pravopisa (broj časova predviđenih za njihovu obradu, izbor nastavnih jedinica, broj časova u toku školske godine u srednjim školama). Analizirana je zastupljenost kulture pismenog izražavanja i njenih dvaju područja u okviru nastavnog procesa – stilistika i pravopis – u obaveznim udžbenicima i u priručnicima za pomenuti uzrast. Dodatno, u radu se razmatra odnos standardnog srpskog jezika i nestandardnih jezičkih idioma u pismenom izražavanju srednjoškolaca, jer osnovu kulture izražavanja čini standardni jezik na kome se u Srbiji odvija nastava na svim nivoima obrazovanja. Osnovni cilj rada jeste da se utvrdi kvalitet pismenog izražavanja učenika koji pohađaju završne razrede srednje škole i da se ukaže na propuste srednjoškolaca u primeni znanja iz stilistike i pravopisa u pismenom izražavanju. Jedan od ciljeva rada jeste da se pokažu slabosti u nastavnim planovima i programima, kao i u udžbenicima i priručnicima za ovaj uzrast učenika. Takođe, bio nam je cilj da sagledamo u kojoj meri se u pismenom izražavanju srednjoškolaca prožimaju jezički standard i nestandardni idiomi. Za korpus istraživanja upotrebljeni su podaci dobijeni u istraživanju koje smo obavili tokom aprila i maja 2011. godine u dvanaest srednjih škola u Beogradu, Novom Sadu, Kruševcu i Jagodini. Uzorak čini 583 učenika III i IV razreda gimnazija i srednjih stručnih škola. Istraživački korpus obuhvata: a) nastavne planove i programe – Srpski jezik za III i IV razred srednje škole (gimnazija opšteg, jezičkog i matematičkog smera, četvorogodišnje srednje stručne škole); b) udžbeničku i priručničku literaturu za srpski jezik za III i IV razred srednje škole; v) test koji sadrži pitanja iz pravopisa; g) upitnik; d) tekstove učenika (istraživačka situacija); đ) školske pismene zadatke srednjoškolaca (test situacija). Analiza nastavnih programa za pomenuti uzrast ukazuje na zaključak da se u srednjim školama u Srbiji nastava kulture pismenog izražavanja reali
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