Local iron production played a major role in the pre-colonial West African economy and certain metallurgical centres operated on an industrial magnitude. One of them is the Bassar area in central ...Togo where the onset of iron metallurgy is considered to date back to the 3rd-4th century BC, even though only from the 14th century AD onwards the area experienced distinct production intensification. High-level iron production lasted as late as the early 20th century.
Bassar iron metallurgy was often considered to have caused massive deforestation and vegetation degradation, mainly due to wood exploitation for charcoal production, specifically to fuel iron smelting furnaces. The study presented here is the first to test this assumption using anthracological methods, supplemented by ethnohistorical interviews and archaeometallurgical investigations.
The focus of our investigations is on two sites, Tchogma and Tatré. The charcoal assemblages at both sites and during all production periods are dominated by trees and shrubs with dense wood. According to our ethnohistorical interviews, hard wood species were considered particularly suitable for iron smelting, including several species with a strong capacity to re-sprout after coppicing.
The taxon composition of the charcoal assemblages from metallurgical waste heaps generally corresponds to the oral traditions. In addition to the taxa mentioned by the interviewees, useful fruit trees such as the shea butter tree (Vitellaria paradoxa) were regularly used as fuel for ironworking. This demonstrates the exploitation of agroforestry parklands, which is providing evidence that arable land was already occupying a vast land surface of the Bassar area.
The results of our study seem inconsistent with the previous idea of massive vegetation degradation due to the impact of wood exploitation for iron metallurgy in Bassar. Three main factors contradict previous general deforestation assumptions: 1. The anthracological results indicate the use of taxa with the ability to re-sprout, which probably allowed for fast woodland regeneration; 2. We consider the area to possess a higher biomass reproduction capacity in comparison to areas further north investigated in our previous studies; 3. The development of local craft specialisation scattered the impact of wood use on the Bassar landscape, thereby, preventing complete local deforestation.
Our re-evaluation of Bassar slag amounts indicates fuel consumption was higher than previously thought. The over-exploitation of certain preferred taxa, particularly species with a restricted capacity to re-sprout, and local vegetation changes around the smelting sites is likely, although such modifications are not unequivocally reflected in the charcoal data.
Usnea glabrescens has been reported to be a re-found species after almost 24 years. We found this lichen in the Bielovodská dolina Valley, Tatry Mts. in 2008. The locality is situated in Tatra ...National Park near the borderline with Poland. Morphology and medullary chemistry of the specimen were typical for the species. Usnea glabrescens grew in a moderately open and humid mixed forest on the bark of Alnus incana.
Poročamo o ponovnem odkritju vrste Usnea glabrescens po skoraj 24 letih. Našli smo jo leta 2008 v dolini Bielovodská dolina, v gorovju Tatre. Rastišče je znotraj Nacionalnega parka Tatra v bližini državne meje s Poljsko. Morfologija in medularni kemizem primerka sta značilna za vrsto Usnea glabrescens. Lišaj je uspeval v zmerno odprtem in vlažnem gozdu na lubju sive jelše (Alnus incana).
U Poljskoj se uzgaja preko 3,660.000 ovaca (god. 1960.), od kojih se znatan dio nalazi u južnim prikarpatskim krajevima, gdje u toku ljetnih mjeseci iskorišćuje sezonske pašnjake Tatra, Beskida i ...drugih planinskih područja.
O presente artigo trata do teatro de animação brasileiro, mais especificamente no que conEste artigo discute a questão da autoria em processos teatrais coletivizados no teatro de grupo brasileiro, ...entendidos aqui como processos que têm como premissa relações dialogadas entre os integrantes do grupo, prezando pela não-hegemonia de uma função sobre a outra. O texto discute a possibilidade de uma autoria polifônica, onde as diversas vozes contidas no processo artístico criam e compõem o texto dramatúrgico e cênico. No texto discorro sobre a criação dos processos coletivizados no Brasil, discuto sobre algumas concepções a respeito do conceito de autoria, bem como analiso o estatuto do texto no teatro e as possíveis novas concepções dramatúrgicas contemporâneas. Além disso, analiso o texto do espetáculo VemVai da Cia. Livre, companhia pertencente ao movimento de teatro de grupo, em atividade na cidade de São Paulo há mais de dez anos.
La moyenne montagne slovaque couvre plus d’un tiers de la superficie du pays et les coopératives en sont les principaux acteurs agricoles. Ces entreprises, créées dans le cadre de l’ancienne économie ...administrée, ont survécu à son démantèlement. La temporalité spécifique de la collectivisation en montagne et la structure du peuplement sont des facteurs expliquant les itinéraires de transformation. L’article cherche à évaluer les effets du contexte montagnard dans la transformation des coopératives agricoles et dresse une typologie des formes actuelles de coopératives dans les zones de montagne.
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RÉSUMÉ. - Les debris flows tiennent une place importante dans le modelé des versants supra-forestiers des hautes Tatra granitiques polonaises, du fait de la très forte intensité des pluies estivales ...et de la configuration des versants. La concentration du ruissellement et la mobilisation des débris s'opèrent au niveau des corniches sommitales, où se forment les laves, qui s'inscrivent ensuite dans la topographie des talus d'éboulis, et se terminent en lobes plats à l'aval. En août 1988, un très gros orage a déclenché le fonctionnement de nombreux couloirs, et cet article distingue plusieurs types à" écoulements en fonction de leurs effets morphogéniques (creusement ou accumulation), et propose un classement des formes (de creusement, ď accumulation ou composites).
Abstract. - This paper deals with geomorphological importance of debris flows on the recent evolution of the granitic Tatra high mountains (Poland) above timber line. These rapid mass movements of water- saturated debris are initiated by intense summer rainfalls and favoured by the surface configuration of upper slope fragments. Starting in steep rockwall sections they cause a modification of scree slopes and may accumulate as lobes at their base. A case of rainfall-triggered debris flows occured in august 1988, when a downpour of 80-120 mm was measured, with a 75-min rainfall intensity of 50 mmlh. The geomorphological significance of this event can be stated in terms of landform changes, either erosional (linear channels) or depositional (levees and cones).
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