According to standard reference works, the Meiji leader Saigō Takamori committed ritual suicide in 1877. A close reading of primary sources, however, reveals that Saigō could not have killed himself ...as commonly described; instead, he was crippled by a bullet wound and beheaded by his followers. Saigō's suicide became an established part of Japanese history only in the early 1900s, with the rise of bushidō as a national ideology. By contrast, in the 1870s and 1880s, the story of Saigō's suicide was just one of many fantastic accounts of his demise, which also included legends that he ascended to Mars or escaped to Russia. Remarkably, historians have treated Saigō's suicide as an unproblematic account of his death, rather than as a legend codified some four decades later. This essay links the story of Saigō's suicide to the rise of modern Japanese nationalism, and examines other Saigō legends as counternarratives for modern Japan.
The concept of Japanese Bushido and its seven virtues were introduced by the authors in this article for the practice and application of couple communication. The Bushido Matrix Worksheet (BMW) was ...created for enhancing couple’s awareness and understanding of each other’s values and experiences. An activity and a case study to demonstrate the use of the BMW were also included.
Many recent studies of bushido, such as Suzuki and Oleg, have stated that the bushido that flourished after the Meiji period was an “invented” tradition that is different from samurai ideology from ...before the Edo period. However, in order to re-examine the traditional nature of the martial arts and Japanese thought, it is necessary to investigate the continuity of samurai ideology, such as what bushido ideologies in the post-Meiji era were inherited from the pre-Meiji period, as well as the renewed samurai ideology and the ideological changes that occurred which were observed from the collapse of samurai society due to the Meiji Restoration.The aim of this paper was to discover from the bushido ideology of Inoue Tetsujiro, a leader in bushido theory from the Meiji period onwards, what kind of pre-Edo period ideology he tried to inherit, and what kind of ideological transition his ideas went through before he wrote his theory of bushido in 1901.First, with regard to what ideas were inherited from the pre-Edo period, Inoue, as pointed out in previous studies, traced the origin of bushido to a link with the Emperor. In that, he divided bushido into two parts: “form” and “spirit”. He stated that “spirit”, that had continued from long ago, should be passed on in the future through moral education.Furthermore, while previous studies have suggested that Inoue established bushido as an academic discipline and led it in a different direction from practical morality, he states that the “determination” to practically carry out bushido should be passed on in post-Meiji morality. This was confirmed as a different aspect of his work from what has been previously identified.Next, regarding the ideological changes that occurred up to the writing of Inoue’s bushido theories, there was a focus on related historical accounts. Previous studies have shown that, with regards to his views on history, Inoue’s position was critical of historical investigation and that history should be used in ethics and moral education. However, these views were not seen at all from 1891 to 1892, but from 1893 they gradually started to be seen in opposition to historical investigation and Christian teachings. From 1899 they were clearly seen to be discussed.Inoue said that bushido should be passed on in morality from the Meiji period onwards. This was thought to have been supported by the gradual formation of ideas on trying to apply history to ethical and moral education by 1901.
The purpose of this study is to clarify the formational process of the thought about women and bushido seen in Kendo Gokui (1916) by Kagawa Teru. To achieve that aim, the first step was to reveal the ...context of the thought between women and bushido in the chapter of general statement of Kendo Gokui while looking at the meaning and positioning of bushido. Next, the background of formation of the thought was explored through analyzing the descriptions in the journal titled Seikou.The results of this study are shown below.1. Kagawa states in the chapter of general statement of Kendo Gokui that the concept of bushido was to be calm and resolute against those who are strong and fierce, and show love to those who are weak and suffering. The terms “jindo” (human way) or “Nihon-do” (Japanese way) could also be used instead of “bushido”. Furthermore, Kagawa pointed out a problem with the term “bushido”. According to him, the concept of bushido has been misunderstood in that the spiritual characteristics of “do” (way) in the word “bushido” were only for samurai warriors (bushi), and had no relation to the other farmer, artisan, and merchant classes in Japan. Kagawa thought that from such an interpretation bushido is a “way” for all people and that even women should not be excluded from studying it and benefitting from it. For that purpose, Kagawa recommended practicing kendo. Thus, it became clear that in the relationship between women and bushido, for Kagawa these concepts were at the core.2. When the background to the formation of thoughts on the relationship between women and bushido were explored, Kagawa’s view of women and interpretation of bushido in Kendo Gokui were found to be similar to an article he wrote in a journal called Seikou that was published in 1909. For this reason, this journal article by Kagawa was considered to be the beginning of his view on women and bushido found in Kendo Gokui.3. The background of Kagawa’s article published in the journal Seikou in 1909, firstly, it was the close relationship between girls and budo in girls’ education in the middle and late Meiji era. It was confirmed that, as governor of Saga prefecture, Kagawa was involved in girls’ education by opening a girls’ high school. Furthermore, similarities were found between interpretations of the view of women and bushido in Kagawa’s Seikou article, and the view of women and bushido described in Bushido, edited by Abe Masato and published in 1902. This was not only because of the teacher-student relationship with Yamaoka Tesshu through Kagawa’s kendo training, but also the close time between the two discourses. From these facts, it can be said that the accounts of Yamaoka Tesshu’s verbal teachings were the background for the generation of the view of women and interpretation of bushido in Kagawa’s Seikou article.
The purpose of this study is to clarify changes in ideas about bushido, especially focusing on the theories of the three historians Shigeno Yasutsugu, Matsumoto Aijū, and Naitō Chisō, which were ...formulated before the “bushido boom” of around 1905 and until the rise of modern bushido. In this paper, the theories of these three writers will be considered from two main perspectives: “the source of bushido” and “bushido’s ethics and morality”. On the “source of bushido”, Shigeno believed bushido to be something that existed from the beginning of the foundation of the country and saw its roots in the Mononobe and Ōtomo families that served the imperial household. Like Shigeno, Matsumoto thought the source of bushido was found in ancient times and the Yamato Court. In previous research, it was asserted that Shigeno was the first return to the source of bushido and emphasise the connection between it and the emperor. Nevertheless, such a view can also be seen in Matsumoto’s work from the previous year. Naito, who wrote his bushido theory two years earlier than Matsumoto, saw the source of bushido as emanating from the generals Nitta and Kusunoki, who protected the imperial household during the Nanboku-chō period. Before the works of Shigeno and Matsumoto, there was also a theory on the origins of bushido based on an historical view inherited from the early modern period, which can be seen in the position of the “Nanchō seitō-ron” (controversy surrounding the Northern and Southern Courts) of the Mitogaku school of Japanese historical and Shintō studies to which they belonged. As for “bushido’s ethics and morality”, the words “ethics” (rinri) and “morality” (dōtoku) were not used in Shigeno and Matsumoto’s theories of bushido. They were critical of the trend at the time to bring historical research and modern ethics and moral education closer together. Thus, their theories of bushido focused on piecing together historical evidence. Naitō, however, used the word “ethics” (rinri) in his discourse. The third decade of the Meiji Period was a time when Japanese literary history was becoming increasingly associated with ethics and moral education. The fact that Naitō was one of the key figures in this movement was thought to be the reason why he spoke of bushido as a source of ethics and morality. In addition, it could be said that such historical trends at that time may have influenced the ideological theory of bushido combined ethics and morality later purported by the scholar Inoue Tetsujirō during the “bushido boom”.
The purpose of this study is to clarify the formational process of the thought about women and bushido seen in Kendo Gokui (1916) by Kagawa Teru. To achieve that aim, the first step was to reveal the ...context of the thought between women and bushido in the chapter of general statement of Kendo Gokui while looking at the meaning and positioning of bushido. Next, the background of formation of the thought was explored through analyzing the descriptions in the journal titled Seikou.The results of this study are shown below.1. Kagawa states in the chapter of general statement of Kendo Gokui that the concept of bushido was to be calm and resolute against those who are strong and fierce, and show love to those who are weak and suffering. The terms “jindo” (human way) or “Nihon-do” (Japanese way) could also be used instead of “bushido”. Furthermore, Kagawa pointed out a problem with the term “bushido”. According to him, the concept of bushido has been misunderstood in that the spiritual characteristics of “do” (way) in the word “bushido” were only for samurai warriors (bushi), and had no relation to the other farmer, artisan, and merchant classes in Japan. Kagawa thought that from such an interpretation bushido is a “way” for all people and that even women should not be excluded from studying it and benefitting from it. For that purpose, Kagawa recommended practicing kendo. Thus, it became clear that in the relationship between women and bushido, for Kagawa these concepts were at the core.2. When the background to the formation of thoughts on the relationship between women and bushido were explored, Kagawa’s view of women and interpretation of bushido in Kendo Gokui were found to be similar to an article he wrote in a journal called Seikou that was published in 1909. For this reason, this journal article by Kagawa was considered to be the beginning of his view on women and bushido found in Kendo Gokui.3. The background of Kagawa’s article published in the journal Seikou in 1909, firstly, it was the close relationship between girls and budo in girls’ education in the middle and late Meiji era. It was confirmed that, as governor of Saga prefecture, Kagawa was involved in girls’ education by opening a girls’ high school. Furthermore, similarities were found between interpretations of the view of women and bushido in Kagawa’s Seikou article, and the view of women and bushido described in Bushido, edited by Abe Masato and published in 1902. This was not only because of the teacher-student relationship with Yamaoka Tesshu through Kagawa’s kendo training, but also the close time between the two discourses. From these facts, it can be said that the accounts of Yamaoka Tesshu’s verbal teachings were the background for the generation of the view of women and interpretation of bushido in Kagawa’s Seikou article.
The U.S. invasion of the Micronesian island of Guam in July of 1944 ended the threeyear Japanese occupation of this American possession, and by August 10 all formal resistance was over. However, two ...companies of approximately 60 Japanese infantry still under military command were ordered by their officers to conduct guerilla warfare against American forces, while smaller groups of stragglers escaped into the rugged interior of the island to avoid combat. Recent archaeological surveys of the U.S. Naval Ordnance Annex revealed evidence of occupation of limestone rockshelters and caverns by one of these companies, who often utilized or modified items of American manufacture recovered from U.S. military dumps for their daily survival. The company's military commander eventually surrendered upon orders of the Emperor of Japan on September 4, 1945, but other stragglers on Guam survived for decades after World War II, the last being captured in 1972. The disciplined survival of organized World War II Japanese soldiers across the Pacific reflected the spirit of Bushido or Way of the Warrior, a feudal code of conduct embracing not only military behavior during battle, but the conduct of soldiers in all aspects of life.
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