Skeletal muscle contracts either by shortening or lengthening (concentrically or eccentrically, respectively); however, the two contractions substantially differ from one another in terms of ...mechanisms of force generation, maximum force production and energy cost. It is generally known that eccentric actions generate greater force than isometric and concentric contractions and at a lower metabolic cost. Hence, by virtue of the greater mechanical loading involved in active lengthening, eccentric resistance training (ECC RT) is assumed to produce greater hypertrophy than concentric resistance training (CON RT). Nonetheless, prevalence of either ECC RT or CON RT in inducing gains in muscle mass is still an open issue, with some studies reporting greater hypertrophy with eccentric, some with concentric and some with similar hypertrophy within both training modes. Recent observations suggest that such hypertrophic responses to lengthening vs. shortening contractions are achieved by different adaptations in muscle architecture. Whilst the changes in muscle protein synthesis in response to acute and chronic concentric and eccentric exercise bouts seem very similar, the molecular mechanisms regulating the myogenic adaptations to the two distinct loading stimuli are still incompletely understood. Thus, the present review aims to, (a) critically discuss the literature on the contribution of eccentric vs. concentric loading to muscular hypertrophy and structural remodeling, and, (b) clarify the molecular mechanisms that may regulate such adaptations. We conclude that, when matched for either maximum load or work, similar increase in muscle size is found between ECC and CON RT. However, such hypertrophic changes appear to be achieved through distinct structural adaptations, which may be regulated by different myogenic and molecular responses observed between lengthening and shortening contractions.
Unaccustomed exercise consisting of eccentric (i.e., lengthening) muscle contractions often results in muscle damage characterized by ultrastructural alterations in muscle tissue, clinical signs, and ...symptoms (e.g., reduced muscle strength and range of motion, increased muscle soreness and swelling, efflux of myocellular proteins). The time course of recovery following exercise-induced muscle damage depends on the extent of initial muscle damage, which in turn is influenced by the intensity and duration of exercise, joint angle/muscle length, and muscle groups used during exercise. The effects of these factors on muscle strength, soreness, and swelling are well characterized. By contrast, much less is known about how they affect intramuscular inflammation and molecular aspects of muscle adaptation/remodeling. Although inflammation has historically been viewed as detrimental for recovery from exercise, it is now generally accepted that inflammatory responses, if tightly regulated, are integral to muscle repair and regeneration. Animal studies have revealed that various cell types, including neutrophils, macrophages, mast cells, eosinophils, CD8 and T-regulatory lymphocytes, fibro-adipogenic progenitors, and pericytes help to facilitate muscle tissue regeneration. However, more research is required to determine whether these cells respond to exercise-induced muscle damage. A large body of research has investigated the efficacy of physicotherapeutic, pharmacological, and nutritional interventions for reducing the signs and symptoms of exercise-induced muscle damage, with mixed results. More research is needed to examine if/how these treatments influence inflammation and muscle remodeling during recovery from exercise.
Over the last 20 years a number of studies have been published using progressive eccentric exercise protocols on motorized ergometers or similar devices that allow for controlled application of ...eccentric loads. Exercise protocols ramp eccentric loads over an initial 3 weeks period in order to prevent muscle damage and delayed onset muscle soreness. Final training loads reach 400-500 W in rehabilitative settings and over 1200 W in elite athletes. Training is typically carried out three times per week for durations of 20-30 min. This type of training has been characterizes as moderate load eccentric exercise. It has also been denoted RENEW (Resistance Exercise via Negative Eccentric Work by LaStayo et al., 2014). It is distinct from plyometric exercises (i.e., drop jumps) that impose muscle loads of several thousand Watts on muscles and tendons. It is also distinct from eccentric overload training whereby loads in a conventional strength training setting are increased in the eccentric phase of the movement to match concentric loads. Moderate load eccentric exercise (or RENEW) has been shown to be similarly effective as conventional strength training in increasing muscle strength and muscle volume. However, as carried out at higher angular velocities of joint movement, it reduces joint loads. A hallmark of moderate load eccentric exercise is the fact that the energy requirements are typically 4-fold smaller than in concentric exercise of the same load. This makes moderate load eccentric exercise training the tool of choice in medical conditions with limitations in muscle energy supply. The use and effectiveness of moderate load eccentric exercise has been demonstrated mostly in small scale studies for cardiorespiratory conditions, sarcopenia of old age, cancer, diabetes type 2, and neurological conditions. It has also been used effectively in the prevention and rehabilitation of injuries of the locomotor system in particular the rehabilitation after anterior cruciate ligament surgery.
ABSTRACT
Introduction
The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of resistance exercise (RE)–induced hormonal changes on intramuscular cytokine gene expression after muscle damage in ...untrained men and women.
Methods
Men (
n
= 8, 22 ± 3 yr) and women (
n
= 8, 19 ± 1 yr) completed two sessions of 80 unilateral maximal eccentric knee extensions followed by either an upper body RE bout (EX) or a time-matched period (CON). Muscle samples (vastus laterals) were analyzed for mRNA expression of interleukin (IL)
6
,
IL-10
,
IL-15
,
TNFA
,
TGFB
,
CCL2
, and
CD68
at PRE, 12 h, and 24 h after the session.
Results
A significant time–sex–condition interaction was found for
TGFB
with an increase for EX in men at 12 h from PRE. For EX,
TGFB
was also greater in men than in women at 12 and 24 h. Significant time–sex and condition–sex interactions were found for IL-10 with an increase for men that was greater than for women at 12 and 24 h. IL-10 was lower in EX than CON for men. A significant time–sex interaction was found for
TNFA
with an increase for men that was greater than for women at 24 h. A significant time–condition interaction was found for CD68 with an increase at 12 h and decrease at 24 h for EX and CON.
CD68
was lower in EX than CON at 12 h. A significant time effect was found for
IL6
and
CCL2
with an increase at 12 and 24 h.
Conclusions
Results suggest that women seem to have a muted intramuscular cytokine (i.e., IL-10, TNF-α, and TGF-β) response to muscle damage compared with men.
Muscle injuries are one of the most common traumas occurring in sports. Despite their clinical importance, few clinical studies exist on the treatment of these traumas. Thus, the current treatment ...recommendations for muscle injuries have either been derived from experimental studies or been tested only empirically. Although non operative treatment should almost always be the 1(st) choice as it results in good functional outcomes in the majority of athletes with muscle injuries, the consequences of failed treatment can be very dramatic, possibly postponing an athlete's return to sports for weeks or even months. Moreover, the recognition of some basic principles of skeletal muscle regeneration and healing processes can considerably help in both avoiding the imminent dangers and accelerating the return to competition. Accordingly, in this review, the authors have summarized the prevailing understanding on the biology of muscle regeneration in hopes of extending these findings to clinical practice in an attempt to propose an evidence-based approach for the diagnosis and optimal treatment of skeletal muscle injuries.
Exercise blood pressure (BP) responses are thought to be determined by relative exercise intensity (percent maximal voluntary contraction (MVC) strength). However, cross-sectional studies report that ...during a static contraction, higher absolute force is associated with greater BP responses to relative intensity exercise and subsequent muscle metaboreflex activation with postexercise circulatory occlusion (PECO). We hypothesized that a bout of unaccustomed eccentric exercise would reduce knee extensor MVC and subsequently attenuate BP responses to PECO.
Continuous BP, heart rate, muscle oxygenation, and knee extensor electromyography were recorded in 21 young healthy individuals (female, n = 10) during 2 min of 20% MVC static knee extension exercise and 2 min of PECO, performed before and 24 h after 300 maximal knee extensor eccentric contractions to cause exercise-induced muscle weakness. As a control, 14 participants repeated the eccentric exercise 4 wks later to test whether BP responses were altered when exercise-induced muscle weakness was attenuated via the protective effects of the repeated bout effect.
Eccentric exercise reduced MVC in all participants (144 ± 43 vs 110 ± 34 N·m, P < 0.0001). BP responses to matched relative intensity static exercise (lower absolute force) were unchanged after eccentric exercise ( P > 0.99) but were attenuated during PECO (systolic BP: 18 ± 10 vs 12 ± 9 mm Hg, P = 0.02). Exercise-induced muscle weakness modulated the deoxygenated hemoglobin response to static exercise (64% ± 22% vs 46% ± 22%, P = 0.04). When repeated after 4 wks, exercise-induced weakness after eccentric exercise was attenuated (-21.6% ± 14.3% vs -9.3 ± 9.7, P = 0.0002) and BP responses to PECO were not different from control values (all, P > 0.96).
BP responses to muscle metaboreflex activation, but not exercise, are attenuated by exercise-induced muscle weakness, indicating a contribution of absolute exercise intensity on muscle metaboreflex activation.
Previous studies addressed the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory role of compounds from green tea in different human tissues. Positive antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects were described for ...brain tissues. Whether similar effects are observed in the skeletal muscle, green tea supplementation could be a strategy to reduce delayed onset muscle soreness resultant of exercise. Here we determine the effect of green tea extract supplementation on exercise-induced muscle soreness, muscle damage and oxidative stress. We performed a randomized triple blind placebo control study. Twenty non-trained men performed sessions of exercise to induce delayed onset muscle soreness in the triceps sural muscle group before and after 15 days of supplementation (500 mg/day) with green tea extract (n = 10) or a placebo (n = 10). Muscle soreness was evaluated using a visual scale. Blood samples were taken at different moments to determine serum blood markers of muscle damage, oxidative stress and antioxidant status. We found that exercise induced delayed onset muscle soreness. Supplementation reduced muscle damage but muscle soreness did not change. Plasma oxidative damage marker and antioxidant status did not show an effect of supplementation. As a conclusion, green tea extract supplementation did not reduce the sensation of delayed onset muscle soreness but reduces the marker of muscle damage after exercise. It suggests the green tea extract supplementation has positive effects on muscle recovery after strenuous exercise.
•Green tea supplementation protects against muscle damage.•Green tea supplementation does not reduce DOMS.•Green tea supplementation has potential to help in exercise recovery.
Abstract A noninvasive, immediate, and convenient method for assessing muscle tissue status during exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD) has not been established. This study was designed to assess ...and determine parameters suitable for measuring EIMD after eccentric exercise, using multi-frequency bioimpedance analysis (BIA). Thirty-five young male participants performed dumbbell exercises with their left arm, and their BIA parameters were measured at various time points up to 168 h post exercise using a multi-frequency BIA device. At all-time points, intra and extracellular water content was greater in the left arm than in the right arm, whereas the impedance, reactance, resistance, and phase angle were lower in the left arm than in the right arm. Established EIMD indices, such as maximal isometric voluntary contraction, were measured and used in correlational analyses. Only reactance was correlated with biomarkers, indicating muscle damage (r = − 0.56 to − 0.49). Furthermore, reactance was found to correlate well with indirect indicators of EIMD, suggesting that it may be a suitable marker for evaluating EIMD. However, the relationship with the limited evaluation indices employed in this study is constrained. Future studies should investigate the correlation between reactance and direct damage indicators, such as structural damage, observed in biopsies.
Eccentric strength training is an innovative and promising approach to improve exercise performance. However, most eccentric training studies in the past were performed with a focus on the lower ...extremities. The present study aimed to test the feasibility and effects on strength and power adaptations of a structured upper-body eccentric training program.
Fourteen (median age (Q1-Q3) 29 years (27-32); 9 females, 5 males) healthy, regularly exercising individuals performed 20 progressive training sessions (2-3 sessions/week at 20-50% peak power for 8-14 min) on a symmetric eccentric arm-crank ergometer. Before and after the intervention, anaerobic peak power (PP) and maximal concentric aerobic power output (POmax) on an arm-crank ergometer as well as the one repetition maximum (1RM) for bench press were determined as main outcome parameters. A p-value ≤ 0.05 was considered statistically significant.
Significant improvements in PP (+ 4% (1-8), p = 0.007), POmax (+ 6% (0-8); p = 0.01), and 1RM (+ 12% (10-17); p < 0.001) were found. Exercise intensity was relatively low at 64% (55-70) of maximum heart rate.
Twenty progressive training sessions on a symmetric arm-crank ergometer are effective in inducing significant aerobic and anaerobic performance and strength improvements in the upper body. This intervention is safe and feasible, and can be performed at relatively low cardiovascular intensities. Therefore, this training method offers an interesting approach from elite sports to rehabilitation.
Purpose This study aimed to determine the effects of bilateral and unilateral eccentric exercises on muscle damage and muscular physiological indices in healthy men. Methods Using a randomized ...crossover design, nine adult males without musculoskeletal disorders were divided into a bilateral eccentric exercise group (BEG, n=9) and a unilateral eccentric exercise group (UEG, n=9). Bilateral and unilateral eccentric exercises involved five sets of six repetitions of the rhythm metronome speed eccentric contraction 3 seconds at 110% one repetition maximum (1RM) using bilateral of BEG and the dominant and non-dominant of UEG separated by four weeks, respectively. Muscle damage (flexed and extended ROM, CIR, and VAS) and muscular physiological indices (muscle activity, muscle fatigue, and muscle tone) were measured before, immediately after (0 hour), 24, 48, 72, and 96 hours following bilateral and unilateral eccentric exercises. Results The flexed ROM, CIR, VAS, muscle activity, and muscle tone were significantly increased after both bilateral and unilateral eccentric exercises (p<.05, respectively). Extended ROM and muscle activity significantly decreased after both bilateral and unilateral eccentric exercises (p<.05, respectively). However, there was no significant interaction between side (S) and time and side (T×S). Conclusions These results showed that there was no difference in muscle damage and physiological indices after measuring and setting the 1RM muscle strength separated by bilateral and unilateral eccentric exercises.
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