This corrects the article DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0295531..
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The History and Evolution of Fitness Sevilmis, Ali; Özdemir, İlknur; García-Fernández, Jerónimo
Sport TK (Internet),
06/2023, Letnik:
12
Journal Article
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Mankind has always maintained the mentality of vitality since its existence. Fitness was used to survive through hunting and gathering required by living conditions in ancient times, the movement ...arising from competition during the cold war period was seen as a propaganda tool in certain periods, and today as a mass sport that prioritizes muscle, beauty and aesthetics used commercially. In the modern world, fitness, which is done with external appearance and aesthetic concerns, has a very old history. This article will highlight historical events and influential individuals who shaped the history of fitness, from primitive man to the founding of the modern fitness movement. For this reason, the history of fitness in the research; In societies, body culture, primitive people and fitness, before and after the industrial revolution, between certain years (1920-1990), were gathered under the titles of today's fitness. As a result, fitness, which developed as a result of physical culture in the 20th century, has a large market in the world.
Desde su existencia, la humanidad siempre ha mantenido la mentalidad de vitalidad. En la antigüedad, las condiciones de vida exigían que el fitness se utilizara para sobrevivir a través de la caza y la recolección, durante la guerra fría se vio como una herramienta de propaganda, y hoy en día como un deporte de masas usado comercialmente que prioriza la musculatura, la belleza y la estética. En el mundo moderno, el fitness, que se realiza con fines estéticos, tiene una historia muy antigua. Este artículo muestra los acontecimientos históricos y las personas influyentes que dieron forma a la historia del fitness, desde el hombre primitivo hasta la fundación del movimiento moderno del fitness. Por esta razón, el trabajo se estructura en la cultura corporal en las sociedades, los pueblos primitivos la revolución agrícola y el fitness, antes y después de la revolución industrial (1920-1990), y el fitness actual. En definitiva, el fitness que se desarrolló como resultado de la cultura física en el siglo XX, tiene un gran mercado global.
Abstract The evolution from hunting and gathering to agriculture, followed by industrialization, has had a profound effect on human physical activity (PA) patterns. Current PA patterns are ...undoubtedly the lowest they have been in human history, with particularly marked declines in recent generations, and future projections indicate further declines around the globe. Non-communicable health problems that afflict current societies are fundamentally attributable to the fact that PA patterns are markedly different than those for which humans were genetically adapted. The advent of modern statistics and epidemiological methods has made it possible to quantify the independent effects of cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) and PA on health outcomes. Based on more than five decades of epidemiological studies, it is now widely accepted that higher PA patterns and levels of CRF are associated with better health outcomes. This review will discuss the evidence supporting the premise that PA and CRF are independent risk factors for cardiovascular disease (CVD) as well as the interplay between both PA and CRF and other CVD risk factors. A particular focus will be given to the interplay between CRF, metabolic risk and obesity.
On the evolution of carry‐over effects Moore, Michael P.; Martin, Ryan A.; Bouwhuis, Sandra
The Journal of animal ecology,
December 2019, 2019-12-00, 20191201, Letnik:
88, Številka:
12
Journal Article
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The environment experienced early in life often affects the traits that are developed after an individual has transitioned into new life stages and environments. Because the phenotypes induced by ...earlier environments are then screened by later ones, these ‘carry‐over effects’ influence fitness outcomes across the entire life cycle.
While the last two decades have witnessed an explosion of studies documenting the occurrence of carry‐over effects, little attention has been given to how they adapt and diversify. To aid future research in this area, we present a framework for the evolution of carry‐over effects.
Carry‐over effects can evolve in two ways. First, the expression of traits later in life may become more or less dependent on the developmental processes of earlier stages (e.g., ‘adaptive decoupling’). Genetic correlations between life stages then either strengthen or weaken. Alternatively, those influential developmental processes that begin early in life may become more or less sensitive to that earlier environment. Here, plasticity changes in all the traits that share those developmental pathways across the whole life cycle.
Adaptive evolution of a carry‐over effect is governed by selection on the induced phenotypes in the later stage, and also by selection on any developmentally linked traits in the earlier life stage. When these selective pressures conflict, the evolution of the carry‐over effect will be biased towards maximizing performance in the life stage with stronger selection. Because life stages often contribute unequally to total fitness, the strength of selection in any one stage depends on: (a) the relationship between the traits and the stage‐specific fitness components (e.g., juvenile survival, adult mating success), and (b) the reproductive value of the life stage.
Considering the evolution of carry‐over effects reveals several intriguing features of the evolution of life histories and phenotypic plasticity more generally. For instance, carry‐over effects that manifest as maladaptive plasticity in one life stage may represent an adaptive strategy for maximizing fitness in stages with stronger selection. Additionally, adaptation to novel environments encountered early in the life cycle may be faster in the presence of carry‐over effects that influence sexually selected traits.
Despite two decades of research on carry‐over effects, little previous consideration has been given to how they adapt and diversify. Unifying theory from the study of life histories and phenotypic plasticity, the authors describe evolutionary trajectories of carry‐over effects, provide illustrative examples and offer recommendations for future work. Photo Credit: M.P Moore
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an immune-mediated disease characterized by inflammatory demyelination and neurodegeneration within the CNS. This damage of CNS structures leads to deficits of body ...functions, which, in turn, affect patient activities, such as walking, and participation. The pathogenesis and resulting consequences of MS have been described as concepts within the International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) model--an international standard to describe and measure health and disability. Evidence suggests that exercise training in people with MS has the potential to target and improve many of the components outlined in the ICF model. Although the body of research examining the effects of exercise training on depression, cognition and participatory outcomes is not sufficiently developed, some preliminary evidence is promising. Exercise training is proposed to affect inflammation, neurodegeneration, and CNS structures, but current evidence is limited. In this Review, we discuss evidence from clinical trials that suggests beneficial effects of exercise training on muscle strength, aerobic capacity and walking performance, and on fatigue, gait, balance and quality of life. Issues with current studies and areas of future research are highlighted.
Exercise intolerance is the cardinal symptom of heart failure (HF) and is of crucial relevance, because it is associated with a poor quality of life and increased mortality. While impaired cardiac ...reserve is considered to be central in HF, reduced exercise and functional capacity are the result of key patient characteristics and multisystem dysfunction, including aging, impaired pulmonary reserve, as well as peripheral and respiratory skeletal muscle dysfunction. We herein review the different modalities to quantify exercise intolerance, the pathophysiology of HF, and comorbid conditions as they lead to reductions in exercise and functional capacity, highlighting the fact that distinct causes may coexist and variably contribute to exercise intolerance in patients with HF.
To estimate international and national temporal trends in the cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) of children and adolescents and to examine relationships between temporal trends in CRF and temporal ...trends in broad socioeconomic and health-related indicators across countries.
Data were obtained from a systematic search of studies that explicitly reported 20 m shuttle run test (a validated measure of CRF) descriptive data on apparently healthy individuals aged 9-17 years. Following the estimation of relative peak oxygen uptake (mL/kg/min) as a measure of CRF, sample-weighted temporal trends were estimated at the country-sex-age level using best-fitting linear or polynomial regression models relating the year of testing to mean CRF. Poststratified population-weighted mean changes in absolute and per cent CRF were estimated. Pearson's correlations were used to describe the association between linear temporal trends in CRF and linear temporal trends in broad socioeconomic and health-related indicators.
Temporal trends were estimated from 965 264 children and adolescents from 19 high-income and upper middle-income countries between 1981 and 2014, using data from 137 studies. Collectively, there was a moderate decline in CRF of 3.3 mL/kg/min (95% CI -3.5 to -3.1), equivalent to a decline of 7.3% (95% CI -7.8% to -6.7%) over the 33-year time period. This international decline diminished with each decade and stabilised near zero around 2000. The decline was larger for boys than girls and was similar for children and adolescents. Trends also differed in magnitude and direction between countries, with most showing declines. There was a strong negative association between country-specific trends in income inequality (Gini index) and trends in CRF across 18 countries; meaning, countries approaching income equality had more favourable trends in CRF.
There has been a substantial decline in CRF since 1981, which is suggestive of a meaningful decline in population health. However, the international trend in CRF has not followed the anticipated trajectory, diminishing and stabilising with negligible change since 2000. CRF data are needed from children in low-income and middle-income countries to more confidently determine true international trends and determine whether temporal trends are similar to those observed in high-income and upper middle-income countries.
To determine the association between cardiorespiratory fitness (CRF) and annual health care costs in Veterans.
The sample included 9942 subjects (mean age, 59±11 years) undergoing a maximal exercise ...test for clinical reasons between January 2005 and December 2012. Cardiorespiratory fitness, expressed as a percentage of age-predicted peak metabolic equivalents (METs) achieved, was categorized in quartiles. Total and annualized health care costs, derived from the Veterans Administration Allocated Resource Center, were compared using multiple regression, controlling for demographic and clinical characteristics.
A gradient for reduced health care costs was observed as CRF increased, with subjects in the least-fit quartile having approximately $14,662 (P<.001) higher overall costs per patient per year compared with those in the fittest quartile, after controlling for potential confounding variables. Each 1-MET higher increment in fitness was associated with a $1592 annual reduction in health care costs (5.6% lower cost per MET), and each higher quartile of fitness was associated with a $4163 annual cost reduction per patient. The effect of CRF was more pronounced among subjects without cardiovascular disease (CVD), suggesting that the results were not driven by the possibility that less-fit individuals had greater CVD. Cost savings attributable to higher fitness were greatest in overweight and obese subjects, with lower savings observed among those individuals with a body mass index less than 25 kg/m
. In a model including historical, clinical, and exercise test responses, heart failure was the strongest predictor of health care costs, followed by CRF (P<.01).
Low CRF is associated with higher health care costs. Efforts to improve CRF may not only improve health but also result in lower health care costs.
Obesity, as compared to normal weight, is associated with detectable structural differences in the brain. To the best of our knowledge, no previous study has examined the association of physical ...fitness with gray matter volume in overweight/obese children using whole brain analyses. Thus, the aim of this study was to examine the association between the key components of physical fitness (i.e. cardiorespiratory fitness, speed-agility and muscular fitness) and brain structural volume, and to assess whether fitness-related changes in brain volumes are related to academic performance in overweight/obese children. A total of 101 overweight/obese children aged 8–11 years were recruited from Granada, Spain. The physical fitness components were assessed following the ALPHA health-related fitness test battery. T1-weighted images were acquired with a 3.0 T S Magnetom Tim Trio system. Gray matter tissue was calculated using Diffeomorphic Anatomical Registration Through Exponentiated Lie algebra (DARTEL). Academic performance was assessed by the Batería III Woodcock-Muñoz Tests of Achievement. All analyses were controlled for sex, peak high velocity offset, parent education, body mass index and total brain volume. The statistical threshold was calculated with AlphaSim and further Hayasaka adjusted to account for the non-isotropic smoothness of structural images. The main results showed that higher cardiorespiratory fitness was related to greater gray matter volumes (P < 0.001, k = 64) in 7 clusters with β ranging from 0.493 to 0.575; specifically in frontal regions (i.e. premotor cortex and supplementary motor cortex), subcortical regions (i.e. hippocampus and caudate), temporal regions (i.e. inferior temporal gyrus and parahippocampal gyrus) and calcarine cortex. Three of these regions (i.e. premotor cortex, supplementary motor cortex and hippocampus) were related to better academic performance (β ranging from 0.211 to 0.352; all P < 0.05). Higher speed-agility was associated with greater gray matter volumes (P < 0.001, k = 57) in 2 clusters (i.e. the inferior frontal gyrus and the superior temporal gyrus) with β ranging from 0.564 to 0.611. Both clusters were related to better academic performance (β ranging from 0.217 to 0.296; both P < 0.05). Muscular fitness was not independently associated with greater gray matter volume in any brain region. Furthermore, there were no statistically significant negative association between any component of physical fitness and gray matter volume in any region of the brain. In conclusion, cardiorespiratory fitness and speed-agility, but not muscular fitness, may independently be associated with greater volume of numerous cortical and subcortical brain structures; besides, some of these brain structures may be related to better academic performance. Importantly, the identified associations of fitness and gray matter volume were different for each fitness component. These findings suggest that increases in cardiorespiratory fitness and speed-agility may positively influence the development of distinctive brain regions and academic indicators, and thus counteract the harmful effect of overweight and obesity on brain structure during childhood.
•Physical fitness components are positively associated with gray matter volumes in overweight/obese children.•Cardiorespiratory fitness and speed-agility affect development of distinctive brain regions.•Cardiorespiratory fitness and speed-agility related-changes in brain volumes are associated with better academic performance.•Muscular fitness is not associated with cortical and subcortical brain volumes.•Physical activity that involves aerobic exercise and motor-agility tasks is important for the brain and academic performance.
Environmental Health Ethics illuminates the conflicts between protecting the environment and promoting human health. In this study, David B. Resnik develops a method for making ethical decisions on ...environmental health issues. He applies this method to various issues, including pesticide use, antibiotic resistance, nutrition policy, vegetarianism, urban development, occupational safety, disaster preparedness and global climate change. Resnik provides readers with the scientific and technical background necessary to understand these issues. He explains that environmental health controversies cannot simply be reduced to humanity versus environment and explores the ways in which human values and concerns - health, economic development, rights and justice - interact with environmental protection.
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