Straipsnyje autorius apžvelgia kalbos ryšį su visuomene ir teigia, kad komunikatyvinę žmonių veiklą reguliuoja specifiniai dėsningumai, kurie kyla iš bendrų visuomenės raidos dėsnių. Nagrinėjamas ...ryšys tarp visuomenės vystymosi dėsnių ir specifinių kalbinės komunikacijos dėsningumų. Kalboje išskiriamas semantinis, morfologinis ir fonologinis lygmuo. Jie sudaro kalbos sistemą, kuri pasireiškia struktūros ir funkcijos vienybe. Aptariama, kiek sistemos struktūra yra determinuojama jos komunikatyvinių ir kognityvinių funkcijų vienybės bei tam tikros visuomenės išsivystymo būsenos, kurioje ji konkrečiai reiškiasi atskiromis natūraliomis kalbomis. Dėstomas marksizmo ir struktūralizmo požiūris į šį klausimą. Marksistai pripažįsta, jog ši dviguba kalbos sistemos determinacija yra pakankamas pagrindas tam, kad atsirastų daugybė kalbų, bei tam, kad tos kalbos kistų. Struktūralizmas atmeta istorinį požiūrį į kalbos reiškinių analizę, o tuo pačiu ir istoriją, todėl jis tampa konkretaus mokslinio lingvistinio tyrinėjimo kliūtimi. Stuktūralizmas apsiribojo tik klausimais apie reliatyvią kalbos autonomiją. Nagrinėjamas ryšys tarp kalbos normų, taisyklių ir dėsnių.
První česká učebnice zaměřená na oblast aplikované lingvistiky, z jejíhož širokého záběru si vybírá několik klíčových témat: osvojování prvního a druhého jazyka, učení se cizímu jazyku, problematiku ...chybové analýzy, forenzní lingvistiku a analýzu diskurzu. Publikace čtenáře uvádí do dynamicky se rozvíjející problematiky výstavby akvizičních korpusů a představuje akviziční korpusy, které jsou dostupné pro češtinu. Učebnice je určena pregraduálním studentům lingvistických, filologických a učitelských studijních oborů se zájmem zejména o osvojování jazyka a učení se jazyku a o analýzu diskurzu.
The paper describes the construction and testing of an electronic application for semi-automatic morphological analysis of Old English. It introduces the state of the art in the field of electronic ...analysis of Old English, provides a brief overview of Old English morphology and discusses the reasoning behind our theoretical framework. An account of the chosen methodology is offered and a specific description of its implementation is provided: from the acquisition and preparation of the lexical input data, through the programming of the forms generator to the testing of the results by analysing Old English text. The resulting recall of 95% is a success; however, the paper also hints at how it may be improved. It also discusses further use and development of the analyser, especially the disambiguation of its results. The paper makes a future semi-automatic morphological tagging of Old English texts a real possibility.
This handbook offers a thorough treatment of the science of linguistic annotation. Leaders in the field guide the reader through the process of modeling, creating an annotation language, building a ...corpus and evaluating it for correctness. Essential reading for both computer scientists and linguistic researchers.Linguistic annotation is an increasingly important activity in the field of computational linguistics because of its critical role in the development of language models for natural language processing applications. Part one of this book covers all phases of the linguistic annotation process, from annotation scheme design and choice of representation format through both the manual and automatic annotation process, evaluation, and iterative improvement of annotation accuracy. The second part of the book includes case studies of annotation projects across the spectrum of linguistic annotation types, including morpho-syntactic tagging, syntactic analyses, a range of semantic analyses (semantic roles, named entities, sentiment and opinion), time and event and spatial analyses, and discourse level analyses including discourse structure, co-reference, etc. Each case study addresses the various phases and processes discussed in the chapters of part one.
A Linguistic Handbook of French for Translators and Language Students offers the reader an in-depth contrastive study of French and English based on recent theories of linguistics and discourse ...analysis.
Šio straipsnio objektas – precedentinių vardų sklaida reklamoje. Precedentinių vardų aktualizavimo reklamoje ypatybės aptariamos pasitelkus empirinę medžiagą: reklamą, kurios vaizde ar tekste ...aktualizuojamos precedentinėmis laikytinos asmenybės. Vienas precedentinių fenomenų erdvės elementų – precedentinis vardas (PV) – individualus, glaudžiai sietinas su plačiai žinomu tekstu ar precedentine situacija. PV atstovauja savo rūšies ženklui, vartosenoje precedentiniu vardu atkreipiamas dėmesys į diferencinius jo požymius. Straipsnyje apžvelgiama ir įvertinama obsceniška PV atribucijos raiška reklamoje, apžvelgiamos su PV aktualizacija sietinos socialinės stigmos ir metasmurto sąvokos ir analizuojami teigiamo ir neigiamo ženklo asmenybių aktualizacijos reklamoje pranašumai bei trūkumai. Remiantis vaizdo eksploatacijos viešajame diskurse teorija (Baudrillard), daroma prielaida, kad visos reklamos, kuriose aktualizuojami itin neigiamą invariantą turintys PV, priskirtinos obsceniškoms, kryptingai siekiančioms šokiruoti. Remiantis asocijuotosios stigmos (Goffman) sąvoka, aptariama neigiamą invariantą turinčio PV aktualizacijos įtaka pristatomo produkto įvaizdžiui. Teoriškai obscenišku straipsnyje laikomas kiekvienas PV aktualizacijos reklamoje atvejis (PV pasirinkimas reklamos subjektu visuomet – galimas, bet nebūtinas), tačiau įvertinimas priklauso nuo konkretaus reklamos pavyzdžio. Reklamoje aktualizuotino PV pasirinkimas – subtilus dalykas: aktualizuota neigiamą invariantą turinti asmenybė gali papiktinti auditoriją ir pakenkti produkto įvaizdžiui, teigiamą invariantą turinčios asmenybės aktualizacija taip pat gali sukelti neigiamą adresato reakciją, nes gerbiama asmenybė dažniausiai nuasmeninama iki stereotipinės karikatūros. Istorinės asmenybės reklamoje aktualizuojamos dažniau nei amžininkai, išimtis – politikai, kurie reklamoje šaržuojami, vaizduojami nekorektiškai ir nepagarbiai. Neigiamą invariantą turintį PV reklamoje renkamasi dažniausiai: tokia aktualizacija pernelyg nepapiktins auditorijos, tačiau asociacija su neigiamą invariantą turinčiu PV gali pakenkti produkto įvaizdžiui. Apibendrinant reklamos adresanto poziciją, teigtina, kad reklamos objekto ir subjekto loginio ryšio stoka, netinkamas reklamos personažų (PV) pasirinkimas, pernelyg didelis supaprastinimas ir adresato gebėjimo atpažinti PV nuvertinimas liudija menką kūrėjų kompetenciją aktualizuoti PV.
The paper notes that while grammars and other linguistic works assume that not precedes the infinitive marker to in English, one can quite often encounter the reverse ordering, to not. The second ...section provides an overview of the relevant literature. The third section compares spoken data from the British National Corpus and the Spoken BNC2014, and analyzes the written data from the Corpus of Historical American English, concluding that the frequency of to not (relative to not to) has indeed been rising significantly in recent decades. The fourth section attempts to identify some factors underlying this change, most importantly chunking and potential semantic differentiation. It is suggested that chunking might be an especially important factor affecting the change, but further analysis is needed, relying on more advanced statistical methods.
U radu je dan pregled područja povezanog s procesiranjem prirodnih jezika i njihova međusobnog odnosa, počevši od šire domene kao što je umjetna inteligencija, putem strojnog učenja, računalne ...lingvistike, metoda strojnog prevođenja te posebice onih zasnovanim na dubokom učenju. Opisane su karakteristike, primjene, faze i glavni problemi obrade prirodnih jezika s leksičke, sintaktičke, semantičke, govorne i pragmatičke perspektive. Opisane su faze prepoznavanja i analize prirodnog jezika kao i faza generiranja prirodnih jezika. Postupci pre-editinga i post-editinga uz korištenje kontroliranih prirodnih jezika dani su kao primjeri prakse kojom se povećava točnost i kvaliteta automatskog prevođenja i općenito procesiranja teksta. Poseban je fokus stavljen na strojno prevođenje te metode strojnog prevođenja. Pristupi strojnom prevođenju kao statistički, temeljen na pravilima, hibridni i pristup temeljen na dubokom učenju opisani su i predstavljeni s obzirom na njihove prednosti i nedostatke i prikladnu primjenu u praksi. Na kraju su dani još uvijek neriješeni izazovi kao smjer daljnjih istraživanja vezanih uz obradu prirodnih jezika te značaj razvoja pristupa temeljenog na dubokom učenju.
The paper provides an overview of areas related to the processing of natural languages and their interrelationships, starting from a broader
domain such as artificial intelligence, through machine learning, computational linguistics, machine translation methods and especially those based on deep learning. The characteristics, applications, phases and main problems of natural language processing from the lexical, syntactic, semantic, speech and pragmatic perspective
are described. The phases of natural language recognition and analysis
as well as the natural language generation phase are described. Pre-editing and post-editing procedures using controlled natural languages are given as examples of practices that increase the accuracy
and quality of automatic translation and text processing in general. Special focus is given to machine translation and machine translation methods. Approaches to machine translation as statistical, rule-based, example-based, hybrid and deep learning-based approach are described and discussed with regard to their advantages and disadvantages including appropriate application in practice. In the end, still unresolved challenges are given as a direction of future research related to natural language processing and the importance of further development of a deep learning-based approach.
Semantics is the study of meaning in language. This clear and comprehensive textbook is the most up-to-date introduction to the subject available for undergraduate students. It not only equips ...students with the concepts they need in order to understand the main aspects of semantics, it also introduces the styles of reasoning and argument which characterise the field. It contains more than 200 exercises and discussion questions designed to test and deepen readers' understanding. More inclusive than other textbooks, it clearly explains and contrasts different theoretical approaches, summarises current debates, and provides helpful suggestions for further reading. Examples are drawn both from major world languages, such as Mandarin Chinese, Japanese, Arabic, Spanish and English, and from minority ones. The book also highlights the connections between semantics and the wider study of human language in psychology, anthropology, and linguistics itself.
This book explains the concept, framework, implementation, and evaluation of controlled document authoring in this age of translation technologies. Machine translation (MT) is routinely used in many ...situations, by companies, governments, and individuals. Despite recent advances, MT tools are still known to be imperfect, sometimes producing critical errors. To enhance the performance of MT, researchers and language practitioners have developed controlled languages that impose restrictions on the form or length of the source-language text. However, a fundamental, persisting problem is that both current MT systems and controlled languages deal only with the sentence as the unit of processing. To be effective, controlled languages must be contextualised at the document level, consequently enabling MT to generate outputs appropriate for their functional context within the target document. With a specific focus on Japanese municipal documents, this book establishes a framework for controlled document authoring by integrating various research strands including document formalisation, controlled language, and terminology management. It then presents the development and evaluation of an authoring support system, MuTUAL, that is designed to help non-professional writers create well-organised documents that are both readable and translatable. The book provides useful insights for researchers and practitioners interested in translation technology, technical writing, and natural language processing applications.
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