Background: Although accumulating evidence suggests that motor and cognitive development is interrelated, only a few studies have investigated links between executive function and motor control. ...Therefore, the present cross-sectional study examined the relationship between motor competences and core components of executive functioning, including inhibitory control, working memory and cognitive flexibility. Methods: In 89 preadolescent children, motor competences were assessed using the MOBAK-5 test battery. Additionally, all participants completed computer-based versions of the Flanker task, which included standard and switch blocks, and the 2-Back task. Results: Partial correlations (correcting for age, gender and body mass index) revealed that locomotor skills were associated with the adjusted hit-rate on the 2-Back task (r = 0.34) whereas object control was linked with conflict score on the Flanker task (r = −0.39). In contrast, there was no correlation between switch costs and motor competences. Conclusion: In preadolescent children, high competences in locomotor skills and object control skills are associated with high performance on specific executive function tasks. This finding supports the current view that motor competences and cognitive control share some common underlying processes.
The purpose of this study was to explore the relationship between postural control and fundamental motor skills in girls. An observational cross-sectional study was conducted in 47 girls, aged ...8-10 years. Postural control (postural sway centre of pressure) was evaluated during tandem stance, leading with dominant and non-dominant limbs with eyes open and closed, using an AMTI force platform. Fundamental motor skills were assessed using the Test of Gross Motor Development 2nd Edition, examining total, locomotor and object control scores. Data were analysed using linear regression, adjusted for body mass index percentile and household income. For locomotor skills, significant relationships were found with a number of postural sway outcomes for adjusted and unadjusted analyses (r − 0.287 to r − 0.425, p ≤ 0.042). Total motor skill score was significantly related to postural sway in the tandem dominant eyes closed condition for unadjusted and adjusted analyses (r ≥ −0.294, p ≤ 0.04). In conclusion, our findings indicate that postural control may be important for fundamental motor skill proficiency and movement quality in pre-adolescent girls, particularly for locomotor skills. Our study provides evidence supporting the clinical practice of assessing postural control in girls presenting with motor skill deficits.
Physical activity and motor competence (MC) have been considered to be closely related and prevent childhood obesity. The aim of the study was two-fold: to examine MC measured with two different ...tools in relation to individual, family, and environmental correlates and to investigate gender differences in MC. The Test of Gross Motor Development-Third Edition (TGMD-3) was administered to three- to seven-year-old children (
= 945), while the Körperkoordinationstest für Kinder (KTK) was also used for five- to seven-year-old children (
= 444). The parent questionnaire (
= 936) included questions about individual (e.g., participation in organized sports), family (e.g., parents' education level), and environmental (e.g., access to sports facilities) correlates. The children's temperament was assessed using the Colorado Childhood Temperament Inventory (CCTI) questionnaire. Data were analyzed using one-way analysis of variance and linear mixed-effects regression models. The regression models explained 57% and 38% of the variance in TGMD-3 and KTK, respectively. Individual correlates, including older age, more frequent participation in sports, and specific temperament traits of activity and attention span-persistence, were the strongest predictors for better MC. Small gender differences were found in both assessment tools, albeit in a different manner. In conclusion, socioecological correlates of MC in young children are multidimensional, and individual correlates appear to be the most important predictors of MC. Importantly, the correlates can differ according to the MC assessment tools.
Motor competence and physical activity (PA) have been associated with various health benefits as well as growth and development in children. Despite considerable efforts many children, however, are ...insufficiently active and display poor motor competence. This has, at least partially, been attributed to environmental changes over the past several decades As motor competence provides the foundation for more advanced movement skills that facilitate participation in PA along with the fact that various lifestyle habits are established during childhood, motor development at young ages can have a significant impact on health later in life. Outdoor play is considered an important contributor towards motor development as it provides diverse movement challenges that stimulate motor competence and motivate to engage in PA. Nevertheless, motor competence does not develop naturally; rather it requires instruction and deliberate practice along with feedback in addition to free play. Accordingly, organized sports and physical education appear to be critical to ensure optimal motor development. Activities that stimulate motor development should consist of diverse movement experiences that affect neuromotor development and enhance motor competence. Key characteristics of such movement experiences are task flexibility and variation in difficulty in order to allow children to engage in challenging and manageable experiences. Sufficient practice time is also critical in addition to teamwork. Taken together, motor competence is an important aspect in the development of children that stimulates an active lifestyle. Even though outdoor play incorporates various features that are important for motor development, structured activities are required as well in order to ensure that children reach their full potential.
Higher physical activity (PA) levels will obtain more health-related benefits for children and adolescents with intellectual disabilities (ID). The mastery of fundamental movement skills (FMS) ...potentially correlates with PA. This study aimed to examine the associations of FMS with moderate-to-vigorous intensity physical activity (MVPA) levels in children and adolescents with moderate to severe ID. Moreover, this research analyzes whether there are gender and age differences in the association between these two variables. A total of 93 children and adolescents with ID, aged 8-17 years (mean age = 13.27; SD = 3.35), were recruited from a special school located in western China. The time spent in MVPA was measured using waist-worn accelerometers. FMS proficiency was assessed using the Test of Gross Motor Development 2 (TGMD-2). Children and adolescents with ID tend to have delayed maturity of FMS patterns (locomotor skills
(92) = -16.91,
< 0.001,
= 2.48; object control skills
(92) = -25.39,
< 0.001,
= 3.72; total FMS
(92) = -21.83,
< 0.001,
= 3.20) and lower proficiency in objective control skills (
(92) = 3.989,
< 0.001,
= 0.29). A significant positive correlation was found between MVPA and FMS, and this association was moderated by gender and age. For boys, object control skills were a significant predictor of MVPA time (
= 0.842,
< 0.01), whereas locomotor skills were a significant predictor of MVPA time (
= 0.472,
< 0.05) for girls. For children with ID, object control skills were a significant predictor of MVPA time (
= 0.736,
< 0.05). Proficiency in FMS has a positive effect on increasing the level of MVPA in children and adolescents with ID. Gender and age factors should be considered when implementing FMS intervention programs.
Background The purpose of this investigation had two folds. First, it aimed to discover the relationship between perceived physical competence and fundamental motor skills in preschoolers. Secondly, ...it examined the effect of sex on perceived physical competence and fundamental motor skills within the sample.
Methods A total of 119 children (mean age 4.00, SD 0.55 years) participated in this study. The Test of Gross Motor Development – 2nd Edition was used to assess fundamental motor skills and the Pictorial Scale of Perceived Competence and Social Acceptance was used to assess perceived physical competence.
Results The results show a moderate and significant correlation between perceived physical competence and fundamental motor skills. Sex differences were also found with boys demonstrating more proficient motor skills and reporting higher perceived physical competence compared with girls.
Conclusions The findings provide relevant information to the child development literature and suggest that a positive relationship exist between preschoolers' self‐perceptions of the physical ability and fundamental motor skills.
PURPOSEThe purpose of this study was to examine the linear relationship between gross motor skills and cardiometabolic risk, with aerobic fitness as a mediator variable, in low-income children from ...the United States.
METHODSParticipants were a convenience sample of 224 children (mean ± SD age = 9.1 ± 1.1 yr; 129 girls and 95 boys) recruited from five low-income elementary schools from the Mountain West Region of the United States. Gross motor skills were assessed using the Test for Gross Motor Development, 3rd Edition. Gross motor skills were analyzed using a locomotor skill, a ball skill, and a total gross motor skill score. Aerobic fitness was assessed using the Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run that was administered during physical education class. A continuous and age- and sex-adjusted metabolic syndrome score (MetS) was calculated from health and blood marker measurements collected in a fasted state before school hours. Total effects, average direct effects, and indirect effects (average causal mediation effect) were calculated using a bootstrap mediation analysis method via a linear regression algorithm.
RESULTSThe average causal mediation effect of gross locomotor skills on MetS scores, using aerobic fitness as the mediator variable, was statistically significant (β = −0.055, 95% confidence interval = −0.097 to −0.021, P = 0.003). The model explained approximately 17.5% of the total variance in MetS with approximately 43.7% of the relationship between locomotor skills and MetS mediated through aerobic fitness. Ball skills did not significantly relate with cardiometabolic risk.
CONCLUSIONThere is a significant relationship between gross locomotor skills and cardiometabolic risk that is partially mediated through aerobic fitness in a sample of low-income children from the United States.
Background: Stunting is a growth problem that occurs in children due to chronic nutrition deficiency over a long period of time. This health problem often occurs in society and is very worrying. ...Unfortunately, its impact on children's development is not yet fully understood. Motor skills are often associated with the children’s nutritional status. These skills are important for children as the basis for their ability to move when carrying out activities. This study aimed to evaluate differences in the motor skills of children diagnosed with stunting and non-stunting. Method: This research used a comparative approach. The sample consisted of 48 children with criteria aged 3 to 5 years. These children were divided into the stunting-diagnosed group (N=24) and the non-stunting group (N=24). Children's motor skills were measured using the TGMD-2 (Test of Gross Motor Development-2) motor skills test. The test has been tested for validity and reliability before being distributed to the participants. The Shapiro-Wilkoxon test was used to check normal data distribution. Results & Discussion: The study showed a significant difference between children diagnosed with stunting and non-stunting children by comparison (P<0.05). Children diagnosed with stunting were reported to have lower motor skills on average gross Motor Quontientx̄87. This value is below average category, while non-stunting children have Gross Motor Quontientx̄111.125, which is beyond the average category. In male stunting children, the highest performance was in the kick movement skill with a value of ±4.25, while the lowest performance was in the gallop skill with a value of ±2.00. For girls with stunting, the highest performance was in the object control skill, striking a stationary ball with a value of ±3.53. On the other hand, the lowest performance was in the gallop skill, with a value of ±1.32. In terms of motor skills, normal boys performed better than girls in jumping, hopping, and sliding (P<0.05). For non-stunting boys, the highest performance was in hop movement skills with a value of ±7.05, while the lowest was in stationary dribble skills with a value of ±4.77. Non-stunting girls resembled the boys as the highest performance was in the locomotive hop skill with a value of ±7.67, while the lowest performance was in the underhand roll skill with a value of ±5.11. In terms of motor skills, non-stunting children performed better than stunting boys and girls (P<0.05). Conclusion: There were significant differences in motor skills between the two groups. Children diagnosed with stunting have lower motor skills compared to non-stunting children. These results provide a better understanding of the impact of stunting on children's motor development. This research also emphasizes the importance of early intervention to improve the motor skills of children diagnosed with stunting. These findings have the potential for efforts to prevent and treat stunting in children and promote the welfare of children's overall development. Keywords: Locomotor skills; Object control skills; Basic motor skills; Children; Development; Nutritional status.
The main objective of this study was to examine the existence of Relative Age Effect (RAE) and analyze the effect of gender on Fundamental Motor Skills (FMS) of preschool children aged 4-5 years old. ...A total of 298 healthy preschool childrenwere evaluated. The Test of Gross Motor Development-2 (TGMD-2) was used to evaluate preschoolers' FMS. The data showed the main effects on the semester of birth factor in locomotor skills (LM) and total test score (TTS) (p < 0.05), but not in object control skills (OC; p > 0.05). There were also significant main effects on the gender factor in LM and TTS (p < 0.05), but not in OC (p > 0.05). RAE is present in FMS in preschool children, with those born in the first semester outperforming those born in the second semester in LM and TTS. With respect to gender, the scores obtained by girls are higher in LM and TTS.
The present study aims to examine the effects of Brain Gym exercise on development of fundamental motor and social skills. Eighty-four children (Mage: 9.55±1.09 years) were selected and randomly ...assigned to two groups of 42: the Brain Gym and the control group. Participants in the Brain Gym group attended sixteen training sessions. The gross motor skills were measured using the test of gross motor development - 3rd edition (Ulrich, Test of gross motor development (3rd ed.). Austin: Pro-Ed.
http://www.kines.umich.edu/tgmd3
, 2016; TGMD-3) while social skills were assessed through the Matson Evaluation of Social Skills with Youngsters (MESSY; Matson, J. L., Rotatori, A. F., & Helsel, W. J., Development of a rating scale to measure social skills in children: The Matson Evaluation of Social Skills with Youngsters (MESSY). Behaviour Research and Therapy, 21(4),335-340,1983). The results showed that the Brain Gym group outperformed the control group in posttest and follow-up stages in terms of all variables.
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