Central-local relation is a critical but overlooked perspective for understanding China’s land system. During the last decades, the central government has decentralized considerable autonomy of land ...development to local governments to encourage the latter to adopt their advantages in local information for economic growth. However, the local government pursues more development-oriented goals, leading land to be an endowment for jurisdiction competition, fiscal revenue maximization, and officials’ career advancement at the local level. The discretion of local government, however, is constrained by the central authority. Land quotas, land approval, and, perhaps most importantly, nomenklatura, all of which are controlled by the central government, undermine the credibility and irreversibility of decentralization. We call such a central-local relation limited decentralization, a framework that could be applied to explain a range of land issues such as farmland protection and real estate regulation. Although we believe the central government is the principal determinant of the degree of decentralization, we also acknowledge that the initiative of local governments is essential. The interactions between central and local governments result in rights definition, power distribution, and, consequently, land use policy change over time.
Big Business and Cadre Management in China Brødsgaard, Kjeld Erik; Beck, Kasper Ingeman
The Copenhagen journal of Asian studies,
12/2021, Letnik:
39, Številka:
2
Journal Article
Recenzirano
Odprti dostop
Leading cadres in China are subject to rotation. An interesting form of rotation takes place between big business and the political world. That means one fifth of China’s governors and vice governors ...have a business background as heads of one of China’s large State-Owned Enterprises (SOEs). How this takes place and which qualifications the involved business leaders possess are shrouded in mystery. Based on prosopographical studies of Chinese business leaders who have participated in the Chinese Executive Leadership Program (CELP), this article attempts to open the black box. The study examines the career pathways of CELP participants in Party, government and business positions. The study shows that 84 of the 261 CELP SOE participants (2005-2018) were subsequently promoted, and 20 of these promotions were from SOEs to leading Party and government positions. In some cases, former business leaders became Party secretaries in important provinces or ministers in key ministries. The article also argues that Chinese business leaders have managed to keep their administrative ranking in the Chinese nomenklatura system. In fact, Chinese business leaders are quasi officials (zhun guan) and form an important recruitment base for leadership renewal. As such, the article suggests that the rotation of cadres within the ‘Iron Triangle’ of Party–government–business constitutes the main unifying and stabilising factor in the Chinese political system.
Abstract Fungal infections of the skin, hair, and nails are the most prevalent among all fungal infections, currently affecting over 20–25% of the world’s human and animal populations. Dermatophytes ...are the etiological factors of the most superficial fungal infections. Among other pathogenic filamentous fungi, what distinguishes them is their unique attribute to degrade keratin. The remarkable ability of this group of fungi to survive in different ecosystems results from their morphological and ecological diversity as well as high adaptability to changing environmental conditions. Dermatophytes, although they are one of the oldest groups of microorganisms recognised as pathogens, have not been classified in a stable taxonomic system for a long time. In terms of diagnostics, dermatophytes still pose a serious problem in the identification procedure, which is often related to therapeutic errors. The increasing number of infections (including zoonoses), the lack of taxonomic stability, and the ambiguous clinical picture of dermatomycosis cases necessitate the search for new methods for the rapid, cheap, and reproducible species identification of these fungi. In turn, the species identification is determined by the clarity of classification criteria combined with the taxonomic division generally accepted by microbiologists and referring to the views expressed by clinicians, epidemiologists, and scientists. In this paper, the authors present the evolution of taxonomic systems for dermatophytes over the history of microbiology development. The discovery of new facts about the biology and ecology of dermatophytes and the development of techniques applied in a mycological diagnosis laboratory facilitated the development of new identification strategies at various points in the history. The modern molecular classification system of these pathogens seems to be stable and widely accepted. However, will it end the long-standing classification confusion and the period of hundreds of nomenclatural changes, which are a diagnostician’s nightmare? It can be argued that the taxonomy of dermatophytes, in particular that of anthropophilic species, is sufficiently established and stable for the benefit of both clinicians and scientists. 1. Introduction. 2. First dermatophyte classification systems. 3. Phenotypic classification systems. 4. “Biological” era in the classification. 5. Ecological division of dermatophytes. 6. Molecular revolution in the taxonomy of dermatophytes. 7. Taxonomic problems in mycology. 8. Clinical aspect of the taxonomy of dermatophytes. 9. Current classification system. 10. Indistinguishable «species complexes». 11. Summary
Systemic transformation in Poland after the Second World War led to deep transformations within the economy. It did not, however, change the way people thought. Despite the chaos of the post-war ...period, in which all the negative features shaped in the period of occupation manifested themselves, it seemed that the conceptual leaders of the Polish political and economic life would create new quality. However, it soon turned out that old habits die hard and the system created by communists opened a field for many abuses. This was accompanied by a sense of impunity, as the most prominent personalities in a given region were also involved in economic scandals. All this resulted in the creation of “cliques” in which both prominent Party activists and people put by the Party in high positions (usually also members of the Polish United Workers’ Party, PUWP) played important roles. On the one hand, after 1956, surveillance by the Security Office (UB) or Security Services (SB) was not that strict anymore, and on the other, the so-called “private initiative” started to develop fast – therefore the more “entrepreneurial” individuals started to exploit the situation and gain wealth. Abusing one’s position to organize large-scale thefts was considered relatively normal. This happened in various forms: sometimes directly, but more often by supporting or even organizing private projects with the use of the national, though unsupervised, supply of raw materials or products. This way, the Party members grew richer at the expense of the companies they worked for. This business was relatively widely tolerated by ordinary citizens, who saw it as an excuse to also “organize” goods individually for their own purposes in the companies which employed them. This common belief that “everybody steals” allowed people to justify their own dishonesty. Any attempts to fight this problem failed to produce satisfactory results. The diagnosis, even if correct, had to face reality, in which the pursuit of a better quality of life by the Party elites collided with the officially promoted ascetic lifestyles of the “ideological communists”, who, like Władysław Gomułka, did not understood the new times.
Systemic transformation in Poland after the Second World War led to deep transformations within the economy. It did not, however, change the way people thought. Despite the chaos of the post-war ...period, in which all the negative features shaped in the period of occupation manifested themselves, it seemed that the conceptual leaders of the Polish political and economic life would create new quality. However, it soon turned out that old habits die hard and the system created by communists opened a field for many abuses. This was accompanied by a sense of impunity, as the most prominent personalities in a given region were also involved in economic scandals. All this resulted in the creation of “cliques” in which both prominent Party activists and people put by the Party in high positions (usually also members of the Polish United Workers’ Party, PUWP) played important roles. On the one hand, after 1956, surveillance by the Security Office (UB) or Security Services (SB) was not that strict anymore, and on the other, the so-called “private initiative” started to develop fast – therefore the more “entrepreneurial” individuals started to exploit the situation and gain wealth. Abusing one’s position to organize large-scale thefts was considered relatively normal. This happened in various forms: sometimes directly, but more often by supporting or even organizing private projects with the use of the national, though unsupervised, supply of raw materials or products. This way, the Party members grew richer at the expense of the companies they worked for. This business was relatively widely tolerated by ordinary citizens, who saw it as an excuse to also “organize” goods individually for their own purposes in the companies which employed them. This common belief that “everybody steals” allowed people to justify their own dishonesty. Any attempts to fight this problem failed to produce satisfactory results. The diagnosis, even if correct, had to face reality, in which the pursuit of a better quality of life by the Party elites collided with the officially promoted ascetic lifestyles of the “ideological communists”, who, like Władysław Gomułka, did not understood the new times.
U ovomu je članku opisana povijest i razvitak hrvatske nomenklature organskih spojeva - od prvoga hrvatskog prijevoda međunarodnih nomenklaturnih preporuka do današnjih dana. U uvodnome dijelu ...definirana su trivijalna, uvriježena, sustavna (racionalna) i polusustavna imena te je rastumačena etimologija i značenje pojmova nomenklatura i terminologija i njihovih prevedenica imenje i nazivlje.
U središnjem poglavlju ukazano je na potrebu osmišljavanja naše nacionalne nomenklature, što je uočeno već 1952. u HKD-u, a rezultat je bio prijevod izvornika Ženevskih pravila (1892.) i Lieške nomenklature (1930.) tiskan 1954. Potom je 1979. objavljen izvornik IUPAC-ove Plave knjige, koja sadrži iscrpna nova pravila imenovanja organskih spojeva, a njezino je prevođenje
potaknuo SKTH (današnji HDKI). Hrvatsko izdanje toga važnog dokumenta objavljeno je u dva dijela (1985. i 1988.). Sljedeći važan naslov kojim se olakšava snalaženje u tim složenim pravilima, i donekle ih izmjenjuje, jest Vodič kroz IUPAC-ovu nomenklaturu organske kemije, čiji je izvornik iz 1993. na hrvatski preveden godine 2002. Osim tri nabrojana djela, objavljeni su hrvatski prijevodi gotovo pedeset dokumenata iz nomenklature pojedinih razreda organskih spojeva, od kojih većina predstavlja preporuke HKD-a i SKTH-a (HDKI). Na kraju središnjeg poglavlja analizirana je nomenklatura u prijevodima pet opsežnih sveučilišnih udžbenika u razdoblju od 1968. do danas, koja je više-manje usklađena s IUPAC-ovim preporukama iz vremenanjihova izdavanja. U zaključku se naglašava da se postojeća IUPAC-ova pravila primjenjuju u srednjoškolskoj i sveučilišnoj nastavi te u enciklopedistici i većini sredstava javnog priopćivanja.
S ciljem da se hrvatsku zastavu učiniti atraktivnom za strana plovila, hrvatski zakonodavac donio je dana 8. veljače 2019. g. Odluku o proglašenju zakona o izmjenama i dopunama Pomorskog zakonika – ...kao dio reformskog paketa pomorskog zakonodavstva. Pored izmjena vezanih uz upisnik, konkretno njegovu digitalizaciju i objedinjavanje podataka, izmjene uključuju i normiranje ugovora o najmu jahte i brodice, zatim rješenja vezana za sprečavanje onečišćenja mora, kao i rješenja s područja pomorskog radnog prava. Međutim, izvršene su i određene izmjene pomorskopravne nomenklature među kojima je i uvođenje nove pravne kategorije autonomnog plovnog objekta. U ovom radu analizira se stoga položaj takvog objekta u okviru aktualnog pomorskog zakonodavstva Republike Hrvatske te se razmatra daljnji smjer kretanja u vidu de lege ferenda osobito kada su u pitanju autonomni brodovi. U radu se razmatra je li uvođenjem nove pravne kategorije Pomorski zakonik otvoreno prepoznao autonomne brodove i u kojem opsegu. Uz ovo, rad također uključuje uvođenje nove (dodatne) klasifikacije s obzirom na nova tehnološka dostignuća i trendove, a koja preporuka se nadograđuje direktno na postojeću pomorskopravnu nomenklaturu, nudeći prikladno nomotehničko rješenje u uređenju novih vrsta objekata uopće, bez zadiranja stanovitim zahvatima u postojeći sadržaj Pomorskog zakonika kako je koncipiran.
With the aim of making the Croatian flag attractive to foreign vessels, the Croatian legislator passed on February 8, 2019, a decision on the promulgation of the Act on Amendments to the Maritime Code as part of the Maritime Legislative Reform Package. In addition to amendments related to vessel registration, in particular its digitization and the unification of its data, the amendments include a statutory standardization of the yacht and recreational boat charter contracts, as well as solutions related to the prevention of pollution of the sea. The amendments include changes in the field of maritime labour law as well. However, the amendments also include certain changes to the maritime-legal nomenclature, including therein the introduction of a new legal category – the autonomous waterborne object. The aim of this paper is therefore to analyse the position of such an object within the current maritime legal system of the Republic of Croatia and to consider a further trend in view of de lege ferenda, especially when autonomous ships are concerned. The paper also examines whether or not did the introduction of the new legal category in the Croatian Maritime Code directly and openly recognised autonomous ships and to what extent. In addition to this, the paper offers a new (additional) classification with regards to technological advances and trends. The recommendation offered thereat is built directly upon the existing maritime-legal nomenclature providing likewise a suitable nomotechnical solution in regulating the new types of objects in general, without substantially interfering in the existing content of the Croatian Maritime Code as originally conceptualized.
This article aims to examine the rise and fall of the
intertwined concepts of ethnic mobilization and
sovereignty of Tatarstan from both micro and macro
chronological perspectives. The findings of ...the article
indicate that Tatar elites were always hegemonic and
decisive in shaping the autonomous sovereignty. The
path dependency of Soviet nationality policies combined
with an ethnic nomenklatura discourse enabled the Tatar
elites to challenge the Federal center for the expansion
of sovereignty. However, the Tatar elites pursued an
adoptive strategy in order not to risk their elite power
and wealth when faced with the growing state capacity
of Moscow in the Putin era.
This study provides an overview of the origin, importance and strength of the non-leading cadre system and argues that the system plays a key role in building resilience in China's bureaucracy. The ...non-leading cadre system is administratively and politically important because it makes the party-state bureaucracy more adaptable and fosters cohesion among the elite cadre workforce. Although the system may appear to have institutionalized redundancy, this study argues that this redundancy has the benefit of making movement between leading and non-leading cadre status possible. In other words, the non-leading cadre system provides the various levels of the party-state bureaucracy with the leverage to develop their own measures for resolving their own problems. Putting aside the deficiencies in implementation, the non-leading cadre system is likely to remain durable and will help to develop an agile and resilient personnel management system, at least in the short to medium term. 通过考察非领导干部制度的起源、重要性及其优点，本文认为非领导干部制度在增强中国官僚制的弹性上发挥了不可或缺的作用。非领导干部制度无论是在政治层面还是行政层面都十分重要，因为它使中国庞大的官僚体制更具适应力，并增强了精英干部队伍的凝聚力。尽管非领导干部制度从设计上看貌似冗余，我们认为恰恰是这种冗余使领导干部和非领导干部的身份能够灵活转化。换言之，非领导干部体制为各个层次的官僚提供了一个以小搏大的工具，使他们能够发展出解决自身问题的切实方案。尽管这套体制在执行中不无问题，非领导干部制度会继续存在下去，并至少在短期内有助于建立一个更有效率和更具弹性的干部人事管理体制。
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