The political turmoil that would characterize Central America for a half-century following independence began almost immediately after the declaration of independence from Spain. Despite glowing promises of prosperity and progress expressed by independence proponents, unhappy times awaited the provinces formerly comprising the Kingdom of Guatemala. Instead of a united isthmian nation, a fragmented, feuding cluster of city states calling themselves “republics” had emerged by 1850. In this turmoil, conservative reaction and the caudillo Carrera came to play a formative role in the shaping of modern Guatemala. Central American independence has attracted less attention than separation elsewhere in Latin America, for