•Deadwood harmonization efforts by forest type.•We used National Forest Inventory deadwood data encompassing more than 55,000 plots.•We create bridge functions to convert deadwood measurements to 7.5 ...and 10.0 cm.•Bridge equations validation statistics indicate that the models performed adequately.•The standing deadwood trees proportion is not a good indicator of the total deadwood.
National as well as international requirements have led to an increased need to quantify deadwood stocks in forest ecosystems given their important role not only in terms of carbon storage and regulation of the carbon cycle but also as biodiversity refugia. However, differences in definitions and field monitoring as well as gaps in existing data on deadwood mean that comparisons among countries and retrospective analyses are difficult. In this research, we propose two potential approaches to solve the most common gaps in forest deadwood monitoring. First, we develop bridging functions capable of converting deadwood measurements with a specific reference diameter to 7.5 cm (minimum diameter value in Spain) and 10.0 cm (the most common minimum value for international statistics) diameters for the main forest types while also addressing the effect of raising the minimum measurable size on the quantification of deadwood. Furthermore, we aim to calculate the ratios between the amount of standing deadwood, the most common indicator monitored in National Forest Inventories, and the entire deadwood pool as a proxy for estimating complete deadwood stocks when data are not available. For this objective, we use information obtained from the Spanish National Forest Inventory, linear models and 10-fold cross-validation. We estimate the percentage of deadwood omitted when the minimum deadwood size is increased for the main eight forest types in Spain as well as for the entire country, using two different approaches. The ratio between the amount of standing deadwood and the entire deadwood pool ranged between 0.14 and 0.45 depending on the forest type. The lowest values of this ratio were found in Open woodlands and the largest in Mediterranean conifers. The validation statistics (R2 ranging from 0.82 in Evergreen broadleaves to 0.97 in Macaronesian broadleaves) indicate that the bridging functions we propose are robust and accurate. However, the ratios between the amount of standing deadwood and the entire deadwood pool performed poorer (R2 ranging from 0.26 in Macaronesian conifers to 0.65 in Macaronesian broadleaves) and led to an overestimation of the total stocks. Our results are of value not only for the purposes of comparison and harmonization but also for the implementation of new forest monitoring systems.
Abstract
Key message
This paper proposes a methodology that could be considered as a base for a harmonized protocol for stem-quality reporting in Europe while conducting National Forest Inventories, ...in order to cost-efficiently obtain a visual wood quality proxy. The importance of the variables selected, the limitations identified, and some improvements to the methodology are suggested. Forest areas with better wood quality, which in turn it would be useful for breeding programs, can be easily detected.
Context
The establishment of harmonized standards or indicators that allow us to determine the quality of the wood present in a forest prior to its exploitation has long been demanded by the European forestry sector, although agreed methodologies for the evaluation of wood quality in standing trees, which is one of the sector’s most urgent requirements, have not, as yet, been implemented.
Aims
To develop a protocol that visually characterizes wood quality on standing trees in a cost-effective way for the National Forest Inventory (NFI). After some improvements, it can be considered as a base for a European harmonized protocol.
Methods
In this article, we analyze the implementation, in the NFI, of a visual wood-quality assessment methodology in forests of Central Spain based on the different European standards as well as on research papers addressing this issue.
Results
The silvicultural practices employed are of the utmost importance to obtain the best wood quality, regardless of the species. Several areas with higher wood quality were identified as well as areas most affected by specific pests in the studied region. The impact of the variables measured (e.g., branchiness, crookedness, maximum branch diameter) is discussed.
Conclusion
It is feasible to estimate a proxy for wood quality on standing trees in the NFI. Furthermore, after studying the inventory data provided, several enhancements are proposed, not only to improve wood-quality estimates but also to optimize fieldwork costs. Harmonizing NFIs to assess and map European standing wood quality can be achieved.
Research Highlights: This is the first study that has considered forest management and wildfires in the balance of living biomass and carbon stored in Mediterranean forests. Background and ...Objectives: The Kyoto Protocol and Paris Agreement request countries to estimate and report carbon emissions and removals from the forest in a transparent and reliable way. The aim of this study is to forecast the carbon stored in the living biomass of Spanish forests for the period 2000–2050 under two forest management alternatives and three forest wildfires scenarios. Materials and Methods: To produce these estimates, we rely on data from the Spanish National Forest Inventory (SNFI) and we use the European Forestry Dynamics Model (EFDM). SNFI plots were classified according to five static (forest type, known land-use restrictions, ownership, stand structure and bioclimatic region) and two dynamic factors (quadratic mean diameter and total volume). The results were validated using data from the latest SNFI cycle (20-year simulation). Results: The increase in wildfire occurrence will lead to a decrease in biomass/carbon between 2000 and 2050 of up to 22.7% in the medium–low greenhouse gas emissions scenario (B2 scenario) and of up to 32.8% in the medium–high greenhouse gas emissions scenario (A2 scenario). Schoolbook allocation management could buffer up to 3% of wildfire carbon loss. The most stable forest type under both wildfire scenarios are Dehesas. As regards bioregions, the Macaronesian area is the most affected and the Alpine region, the least affected. Our validation test revealed a total volume underestimation of 2.2% in 20 years. Conclusions: Forest wildfire scenarios provide more realistic simulations in Mediterranean forests. The results show the potential benefit of forest management, with slightly better results in schoolbook forest management compared to business-as-usual forest management. The EFDM harmonized approach simulates the capacity of forests to store carbon under different scenarios at national scale in Spain, providing important information for optimal decision-making on forest-related policies.
Forest transitions (FT) occur when socioeconomic development leads to a shift from net deforestation to reforestation; these dynamics have been observed in multiple countries across the globe, ...including the island of Puerto Rico in the Caribbean. Starting in the 1950s, Puerto Rico transitioned from an agrarian to a manufacturing and service economy reliant on food imports, leading to extensive reforestation. In recent years, however, net reforestation has leveled off. Here we examine the drivers of forest transition in Puerto Rico from 1977 to 2000 at two subnational, nested spatial scales (municipality and barrio) and over two time periods (1977-1991 and 1991-2000). This study builds on previous work by considering the social and biophysical factors that influence both reforestation and deforestation at multiple spatial and temporal scales. By doing so within one analysis, this study offers a comprehensive understanding of the relative importance of various social and biophysical factors for forest transitions and the scales at which they are manifest. Biophysical factors considered in these analyses included slope, soil quality, and land-cover in the surrounding landscape. We also considered per capita income, population density, and the extent of protected areas as potential factors associated with forest change. Our results show that, in the 1977-1991 period, biophysical factors that exhibit variation at municipality scales (~100 km²) were more important predictors of forest change than socioeconomic factors. In this period, forest dynamics were driven primarily by abandonment of less productive, steep agricultural land in the western, central part of the island. These factors had less predictive power at the smaller barrio scale (~10 km²) relative to the larger municipality scale during this time period. The relative importance of socioeconomic variables for deforestation, however, increased over time as development pressures on available land increased. From 1991-2000, changes in forest cover reflected influences from multiple factors, including increasing population densities, land development pressure from suburbanization, and the presence of protected areas. In contrast to the 1977-1991 period, drivers of deforestation and reforestation over this second interval were similar for the two spatial scales of analyses. Generally, our results suggest that although broader socioeconomic changes in a given region may drive the demand for land, biophysical factors ultimately mediate where development occurs. Although economic development may initially result in reforestation due to rural to urban migration and the abandonment of agricultural lands, increased economic development may lead to deforestation through increased suburbanization pressures.
Forest deadwood is a relevant factor in the provision of ecosystem services (forest biodiversity, carbon sequestration, recreational and aesthetic values), but it also influences the risk and impact ...of forest perturbations. Hence, reliable estimations are urgently need in the lack of detailed information in Mediterranean forests at large scales. In this study we provide, for the first time, national-level estimations for Spain based on the information from the Spanish National Forest Inventory (38,945 plots). In addition, we compare and validate two approaches for estimating deadwood stocks where data is lacking; the first of these being a modelling approach based on stand, climatic and physiographical variables, and the other considers the ratio between deadwood and living biomass. We also examine the different patterns stock across forest types in four biogeographical regions according to a broad-spectrum of species groups and forests with different degrees of anthropogenic influence. The degrees are based on levels of protection and naturalness categories.
The modelling approach provides more robust deadwood estimates and better predictive capacity than the ratio approach. Alpine (6.09 Mg.ha−1) and Atlantic (3.53 Mg.ha−1) bioregion forests store significantly higher mean deadwood biomass stocks than Macaronesian and Mediterranean forests. However, the share of deadwood in relation to the total biomass stock is greater in Mediterranean biogeographical region. As regards species groups, the mean deadwood stock of mixed forests doubled the stocks found in conifer and broadleaved dominated forests. We also found significant differences in deadwood biomass stocks between forests with different levels of anthropogenic protection. However, forest types with intensive forest management had contrasting figures for deadwood stock.
The mean values obtained at national level according to forest type, bioregion and degree of anthropogenic influence, provide baseline information for carbon accounting as well as for other forest policy planning and management strategies.
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•Alpine and Atlantic forests stored higher DW biomass (6.09 and 3.53 Mg ha-1) than Macaronesian and Mediterranean forests•DW biomass in mixed forests (2.92 Mg ha-1) is double the stock found in conifer and broadleaved forests•Lying and standing adult-tree DW stocks account for 72% of the total DW volume•Deadwood stocks (DW) and the percentage of DW to total stocks exhibit opposite trends•GAM displays more robust and accurate estimates than the DW-living biomass ratio approach
•Site form concept is used to develop site quality model.•National site quality maps were obtained for 24 Spanish forest species.•These maps provide site quality for stands with different structures.
...Determining site quality is essential in order to develop sustainable forest management, allowing more appropriate silvicultural decisions to be made. However, most studies carried out in Spain have focused on a few species and at local scale, which makes it difficult to apply the findings or conduct studies at larger scales. The aim of this study is to obtain a site quality map at national scale for the main forest species (Pinus sylvestris, Pinus uncinata, Pinus pinea, Pinus halepensis, Pinus nigra, Pinus pinaster, Pinus canariensis, Pinus radiata, Abies alba, Juniperus thurifera, Quercus robur, Querus petraea, Quercus pyrenaica, Quercus faginea, Quercus ilex, Quercus suber, Populus nigra, Eucalyptus globulus, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Fagus sylvatica, Castanea sativa, Quercus pubescens, Populus × canadensis, Betula alba). National Forest Inventory (NFI) data has been used to develop site quality models using the site form (SF) concept (dominant height- dominant diameter relationship). Universal Kriging techniques have been used to identify both the geographical trend linked to site factors (climatic, soil and physiographic variables) and their spatial autocorrelation to estimate the SF for every species. Finally, the information was interpolated for each tile of the Spanish National Forest Map in which the species considered was present, thus obtaining a SF national map for each species.
The results reveal biologically consistent SF models, indicating that both NFI data and SF are suitable for studying site quality at national level. The variables used differ among the species analyzed, altitude being the most important variable for estimating SF models, while aridity and soil variables are less important.
The results obtained could provide an important tool for forest managers working at national level with the main forest species in Spain. This methodology could be used for larger areas, such as at European level, and would allow some species to be analyzed at larger scales.
Climate change influences forest ecosystems in several ways, such as modifying forest growth or ecosystem functionality. To fully understand the impact of changing climatic conditions on forest ...growth it is necessary to undertake long-term spatiotemporal analyses. The main purpose of this work is to describe the major trends in tree growth of Pinus pinaster in Spain over the last 70 years, differentiating homogeneous ecological units using an unsupervised classification algorithm and additive modelling techniques. We also aim to relate these growth trends with temporal series for precipitation and temperature, as well as forest variables. We leverage information from a large data set of tree cores (around 2200) extracted during the field campaign of the Fourth Spanish National Forest Inventory. An unsupervised algorithm classified the plots into five classes, which were consistent in ecological terms. We also found a general decline in growth in three of the five ecoregions since the 1970s, concomitant with an increase in temperature and a reduction in precipitation. However, this tree growth decline has not been observed in the Atlantic influenced ecoregion, where the cooler, more humid climatic conditions are more stable. Certain stand features, such as low basal area through forest management practices, may have alleviated the impact of harsh climatic conditions on some areas of inner Spain, while denser stands display a more pronounced decline in tree growth. We concluded that Southern populations show some degrees of growth decline and low growth trends while Northern populations did not exhibit growth decline and have the largest growth rates. Under a forecasted increment of temperatures, the growth decline can be expanded.
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•National scale evaluation of P. pinaster tree growth in Spain•Delimitation of five ecoregions for the species using climatic and soil variables•Populations in inner Spain have suffered a decline in tree growth since 1970s–1980s.•Northern populations of P. pinaster show constant tree growth from 1950 to 2010.•Tree growth exhibits significant associations with climatic conditions.
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•This is the first study in Spain analyzing the temporal trends in deadwood carbon at national scale.•Our findings indicate that the deadwood carbon have significantly increased from ...2009 to 2017.•Mean annual deadwood increments are positive in Mediterranean and Macaronesian regions.•Mean annual increment in deadwood is negative in the Alpine region and null in the Atlantic.•Stand features and biogeoregions climate determine the dynamics of deadwood carbon stocks.
Forest deadwood is a key indicator for biodiversity, disturbances and for carbon storage assessments. However, the role of Mediterranean forests in deadwood carbon storage is unclear. In this regard, the European Regulation 2018/841 on the inclusion of greenhouse gas emissions and removals from land use, land use change and forestry in the 2030 climate and energy framework, requires reports by Member States on the average annual net emissions or removals of deadwood carbon. The main purpose of this work is to explore the trends of forest deadwood carbon to clarify the role of Spanish forest as deadwood carbon storage. We also investigate the effect of forest stand, climatic and physiographic variables on the deadwood carbon trends. For the purposes of our study, we used the deadwood data from two cycles of the European large-scale forest condition-monitoring programme Level I, which spanned from 2009 to 2017. Our findings indicate that there is statistical evidence of increments in deadwood carbon stocks in Spain over the last decade. We also identified certain spatial trends of mean annual changes in deadwood carbon: positive increment in the Mediterranean and Macaronesian regions, close to zero in the Atlantic region and negative in the Alpine region. We also found significant and positive relationships between the mean height and basal area on deadwood carbon stocks as well as a bell-shaped relationship between the mean diameter of living trees as a proxy of stand age on deadwood carbon stocks. The European Level I Monitoring Programme emerged as a useful tool to explore the dynamics of deadwood carbon. However, the temporal scheme and the lack of repeated measurements of dasometric inventories preclude forecasting future deadwood carbon stocks under alternative management regimes and climate conditions. In this regard, the deadwood data collected in future cycles, together with the deadwood data from the National Forest Inventory plots may allow the development of prediction models and therefore fulfill the international requirements on Member States for deadwood forecasts at national scale for the 2021 to 2030 period.
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•Defoliation by Gonipterus platensis is strongly related to climatic conditions.•Monospecific Eucalyptus globulus stands in mild weather conditions are more prone to attack.•This ...method enables to simulate G. platensis pest in Spanish Eucalyptus spp. stands.•Risk maps have been generated to aid the development of pest control programs.
Plantations of Eucalyptus species have been widely used in Spain to meet the high demand for wood given their rapid growth and high wood production capacity. Defoliation induced by the invasive eucalypt weevil (Gonipterus platensis (Marelli)), however, has been causing significant economic damage to Spanish Eucalyptus spp. plantations since the 1990s. G. platensis is native to Tasmania, Australia, where populations are controlled by natural enemies including the egg parasitoid Anaphes nitens Girault. In this study, spatio-temporal Universal Kriging was applied to examine the dynamics of defoliation damage caused by G. platensis in Spanish Eucalyptus spp. plantations and to identify the main factors associated with the presence and spread of the pest. The data set combines the Spanish national plots belonging to the network of the European transnational survey of forest condition in Europe (ICP Forest Level I, 16 × 16 km grid) along with regional plots, measured using similar field protocols, in which Eucalyptus spp. are present. A total of 264 Eucalyptus plots were included in the study, G. platensis being present in 167 of these plots at some time during the observed period (2005–2020). Our results show that defoliation damage > 0% and defoliation damage > 5% caused by G. platensis increased over the period 2005–2010 and then decreased between 2010 and 2020. Defoliation damage > 15% incidence steadily decreased from 2005 to 2015, but showed an upturn in 2020. Stands belonging to the Atlantic region are more affected by this pest (76% of the Atlantic sampling plots affected versus just 4% of the Mediterranean plots). The species Eucalyptus globulus Labill. and monospecific stands, as well as spring precipitation of the current year were found to be positively associated with the incidence of G. platensis whereas the relationship with summer temperature of the previous year was negative. Finally, maps showing the degree of incidence over time have been produced to support decision-making for pest prevention and control. This study puts forward a methodology which allows the spread of this pest to be better understood and simulated, thus facilitating risk prevention.
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