This study addressed why women have greater representation in some STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) fields compared to others by linking two theoretical approaches, ...people–thing orientation (PO, TO) and role congruity theory, which emphasizes occupation goal affordances associated with traditionally feminine and masculine roles. Vocational interest and goal affordance ratings (having a positive social impact, family, and occupation status) for occupations characterized as working with people or things were assessed in 1848 students (42% female; 81% white non-Hispanic) majoring in biology (gender balanced), non-biology STEM (male-dominated), and female-dominated health fields. Participant PO and TO interests were also collected. Results indicated that non-biology STEM majors showed lower PO and higher TO interests than biology and health majors. Non-biology STEM majors also endorsed PO and TO interests at similar levels, but the other two major groups indicated higher PO than TO. People Jobs were perceived to more likely afford goals related to family and positive social impact; whereas Thing Jobs were perceived to more likely afford status goals. Interest in People Jobs was similar for women in both STEM major groups. Female non-biology STEM majors were equally interested in People and Thing Jobs; whereas biology majors preferred People Jobs. PO, TO, and goal affordance ratings independently predicted interest in People and Thing Jobs, and gender accounted for very little additional variance. Taken together, the findings point to the importance of using both person–thing orientation and role congruity theory when explaining varied gender representations in different STEM fields.
•Students in STEM majors with an underrepresentation of women showed higher interest in things than other majors.•Female STEM majors with an underrepresentation of women showed similar interest in People and Thing Jobs.•People Jobs were perceived to more likely afford communal goals than Thing Jobs.•Thing Jobs were perceived to more likely afford agentic goals than People Jobs.•People orientation, thing orientation, and goal affordance ratings predicted interest in People and Thing Jobs
Informed by goal congruity theory and emerging adulthood theory, this study examined changes over time and gender differences in the importance that college STEM majors placed on three life goals ...that have been hypothesized to explain the differential retention of men and women in STEM: Marriage-Family, Career-Status, and the desire to have a positive Social Impact. 251 students (
n
= 128, 51% women;
n
= 191, 76% White) completed three surveys, one year apart. Participants rated the importance of different life goals at each time point. Changes in importance ratings over time were moderated by gender. Men and women only differed in the importance placed on Marriage-Family goals at Time 1 and differences in Social Impact goals emerged at Time 3. Men’s ratings for Marriage-Family and Social Impact goals decreased over time, but women’s ratings did not significantly change. For both genders, ratings of Career-Status goals decreased over time. Secondary analyses suggest that gender differences in Marriage-Family and Social Impact goals emerge midway through college for STEM majors. Findings suggest that women who are retained in STEM majors place a high value on Marriage-Family and Social Impact goals, similar to non-STEM majors, but may be able to better visualize a future STEM career that affords these goals. Explanations for gender differences in STEM interest based on goal congruity theory should consider that the importance of different life goals may change over college.
The global workforce faces a common problem: women are underrepresented in STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) disciplines. Based on goal congruity theory, the present study ...examined Chinese college students' career interests. In Study 1, a total of 413 Science/Engineering and Medicine/Business majors chose between two jobs: one was masculine, and one was feminine; one afforded a life goal, and the other did not. The life goals were agentic (high salary), or communal (time to spend with family, helping others, and social connection). Results showed that men and Science/Engineering majors preferred masculine jobs more than feminine ones, whereas women and Medicine/Business majors preferred feminine jobs more than masculine ones. Among the four life goals, family-friendly jobs were valued the highest for Science/Engineering men. However, high-salary jobs were valued as high as family-friendly jobs for Science/Engineering women. Medicine/Business majors did not differentiate among the four life goals. To replicate the results regarding life goals, 84 Science/Engineering and Medicine/Business majors participated in Study 2, where they ranked four jobs that afforded a different goal. High-salary and family-friendly jobs were rated higher than the other two types of jobs for Science/Engineering and Medicine/Business majors. Our study showed the impact of different life goals on career preference. Theoretical and practical implications of the results were also discussed.
There is a workforce shortage in middle-skill occupations requiring some educational training but not a 4-year college degree, such as skilled trades (e.g., construction), transportation (e.g., ...drivers), and manufacturing. Identifying factors that promote adolescent interest in middle-skill occupations is crucial in combating this shortage. This study examined whether variables contributing to adolescent interest in STEM occupations, such as gender, occupation goal affordances, and occupational knowledge, extend to middle-skill occupations. Results from hierarchical linear models revealed that adolescents (N = 502) were interested in middle-skill occupations for which they felt knowledgeable and perceived to afford agentic and communal goals. The effect of perceived knowledge on interest in construction and manufacturing occupations was stronger for boys than girls. Efforts to increase interest in middle-skill occupations should address the gender gap in perceived knowledge and highlight how these occupations fulfill agentic and communal goals.
Women’s implicit associations between gender and science, technology, engineering, and math (STEM) may inhibit their desire to pursue and succeed in STEM careers. Little consensus exists regarding ...when these associations begin to develop and what may lead to changes over time. This study examined whether gender-STEM implicit associations of college women majoring in male-dominated STEM fields are less stereotypical than those who choose non-STEM, people-oriented, female-dominated majors (FDMs), whether these associations might differ between students at the start and end of their degree program, and whether these associations are related to previous STEM-relevant educational experiences or explicit STEM-gender associations. A Career Identity Implicit Association Test (IAT) measured implicit associations between personal identities and career choices and a Gender-Career IAT measured implicit associations between gender groups and careers in a sample of 240 college women (half STEM majors, half FDMs) who completed the study online. Half of each major group was composed of first year students and half were more advanced students (third year or beyond). We also assessed explicit gender-STEM stereotypes and early educational experiences related to STEM. Results indicated more counter-stereotypical associations for personal career identity and gender-career stereotypes among STEM women compared to non-STEM women, with no effect for year in school. Higher quality STEM educational experiences were also associated with counter-stereotypical scores on both IATs. Counterintuitively, explicit gender-STEM associations were related to less stereotypical scores on the Career-Identity IAT. Unexpectedly, STEM majors and advanced students reported more pronounced explicit gender-STEM associations than FDM majors and first-year students. Both IAT scores and early educational experiences predicted major choice. These results have novel implications for interventions that encourage women’s participation in STEM.
Social cognitive models examining academic and career outcomes emphasize constructs such as attitude, interest, and self-efficacy as key factors affecting students’ pursuit of STEM (science, ...technology, engineering and math) courses and careers. The current research examines another under-researched component of social cognitive models: social support, and the relationship between this component and attitude and self-efficacy in math and science. A large cross-sectional design was used gathering data from 1,552 participants in four adolescent school settings from 5th grade to early college (41 % female, 80 % white). Students completed measures of perceived social support from parents, teachers and friends as well as their perceived ability and attitudes toward math and science. Fifth grade and college students reported higher levels of support from teachers and friends when compared to students at other grade levels. In addition, students who perceived greater social support for math and science from parents, teachers, and friends reported better attitudes and had higher perceptions of their abilities in math and science. Lastly, structural equation modeling revealed that social support had both a direct effect on math and science perceived abilities and an indirect effect mediated through math and science attitudes. Findings suggest that students who perceive greater social support for math and science from parents, teachers, and friends have more positive attitudes toward math and science and a higher sense of their own competence in these subjects.
The present study examines the gendered nature of implicitly held beliefs related to STEM careers. It tests predictions from balanced identity theory on the relations between implicit STEM gender ...stereotypes and implicit STEM identity, as well as predictions from the associative-propositional model related to exposure to counter-stereotypical exemplars in a sample of U.S. college-aged heterosexual romantic couples that varied in whether the woman majored in STEM or in female-dominated majors (FDM). Gender-STEM stereotypes and Self-STEM identification, as measured by Implicit Associations Tasks, were examined in 117 college women majoring in STEM or in FDM and in their romantic partners, some of whom were also majoring in STEM. Women in STEM majors evidenced stronger STEM identities while also demonstrating reduced Gender/STEM stereotypes in comparison to women in FDM and men in STEM. For women, implicit STEM stereotypes predicted implicit STEM identity which in turn predicted majoring in STEM, consistent with predictions from balanced identity theory. There was no support for the hypothesis that men’s exposure to counter-stereotypical women through their romantic relationships influenced their own implicit stereotypes, inconsistent with the associative-propositional model. Women in STEM fields and their romantic partners also evidenced more similar levels of STEM gender stereotypes when compared to the other couples. Dissemination of these results may encourage other STEM-talented women in similar pursuits.
Two studies with racially diverse samples examined the effects of gender role congruence on romantic interest in online dating profiles. Study 1 (N = 429, 55% male) was a replication and extension of ...Chappetta, K. C., & Barth, J. M. (2016). How gender role stereotypes affect attraction in an online dating scenario. Computers in Human Behavior, 63, 738–746 and examined the effects of profile gender role congruence, physical attractiveness, and a person’s own gender stereotypical characteristics on romantic interest in young adults. Participants viewed online dating profiles that varied in physical attractiveness and adherence to gender role norms. Attractive and gender role incongruent profiles were preferred over average-looking and gender role congruent profiles, but the latter effect was driven by women. The difference in preference for attractive and average-looking profiles was greater for women than for men. Women’s preferences for incongruent profiles were associated with self-reported feminine traits, but preference for congruent profiles was associated with self-reported masculine traits. Study 2 (N = 958, 50.6% male) removed the profile photos to provide a better test of the influence of gender role congruence. Study 1 results replicated: Incongruent profiles were preferred over congruent profiles, primarily for women, and women’s masculine and feminine traits were associated with preferences for congruent and incongruent profiles, respectively, supporting the idea that attraction is based on perceived similarities. Men’s preference for both congruent and incongruent profiles was related to holding feminine communal traits and egalitarian gender role beliefs. Women’s preference for gender role incongruent profiles was robust across three studies. There was no support for predictions from social role theory that people prefer gender role congruence.
It has been widely suggested that women are under-represented in STEM fields because careers in these fields are perceived as incompatible with other traditionally feminine roles and life goals such ...as helping others or maintaining a marriage and family. Although a number of studies of women in STEM have examined the importance of the communal goal of helping others, few studies have examined another communal goal, maintaining a romantic relationship. To address this gap, we designed a two-part study to explore the impact of romantic relationships on relationship and career goals of college STEM majors. First, a survey was conducted that examined the impact of relationship status on 713 male and 409 female college STEM majors’ life goals and gender roles (82 % White). Although results indicated gender differences in goals and roles related to family and careers, interaction effects with relationship status that would suggest unique negative impacts on women’s education or career goals were not found. Next, a subsample of 59 female STEM majors (81 % White) and their male romantic partners participated in a study examining their investments in and beliefs about careers, family, and the balance between the two. Findings suggest that successful female STEM majors may seek and find partners who are supportive of their educational and careers goals, as evidenced by the partners’ investment and expectations for relationship and work roles. Overall, findings indicate that a supportive romantic partner may be a positive determining factor for women’s success in STEM.
Interest in STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) careers falls off more quickly for young women than for young men over adolescence, and gender stereotypes may be partially to ...blame. Adolescents typically become more stereotypical in their career interests over time, yet they seem to become more flexible in applying stereotypes to others. Models of career interest propose that career decisions result from the alignment of self-perceived abilities with occupation-required skills and that gender stereotypes may influence this process. To investigate the discrepancy between applying stereotypes to self and others, we examined if these models can be applied to perceptions of others. Focusing on students from fifth grade through college enrolled in advanced STEM courses, we investigated how STEM occupational stereotypes, abilities, and efficacy affect expectations for others’ and own career interests. U.S. participants (
n
= 526) read vignettes describing a hypothetical male or female student who was talented in math/science or language arts/social studies and then rated the student’s interest in occupations requiring some of those academic skills. Participants’ self-efficacy, interest, and stereotypes for STEM occupations were also assessed. Findings suggest that ability beliefs, whether for oneself or another, are powerful predictors of occupational interest, and gender stereotypes play a secondary role. College students were more stereotypical in their ratings of others, but they did not manifest gender differences in their own STEM self-efficacy and occupational interests. Experiences in specialized STEM courses may explain why stereotypes are applied differentially to the self and others.
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