Context. The background radiation in the optical and the infrared cause energy loss in the propagation of high energy particles through space. In particular, TeV observations with Cherenkov ...telescopes of extragalactic sources are influenced by the opacity effects due to the interaction of the very high-energy source photons with the background light. Aims. With the aim of assessing with the best possible detail these opacity terms, we have modelled the extragalactic optical and infrared backgounds using available information on cosmic sources in the universe from far-UV to sub-millimeter wavelengths over a wide range of cosmic epochs. Methods. We have exploited the relevant cosmological survey data – including number counts, redshift distributions, luminosity functions – from ground-based observatories in the optical, near-IR, and sub-millimeter, as well as multi-wavelength information coming from the HST, ISO and Spitzer space telescopes. Additional constraints have been used from direct measurements or upper limits on the extragalactic backgrounds by dedicated missions (COBE). All data were fitted and interpolated with a multi-wavelength backward evolutionary model, allowing us to estimate the background photon density and its redshift evolution. From the redshift-dependent background spectrum, the photon-photon opacities for sources of high-energy emission at any redshifts were then computed. The same results can also be used to compute the optical depths for any kind of processes in the intergalactic space involving interactions with background photons (like scattering of cosmic-ray particles). Results. We have applied our photon-photon opacity estimates to the analysis of spectral data at TeV energies on a few BLAZARs of particular interest. The opacity-corrected TeV spectra are entirely consistent with standard photon-generation processes and show photon indices steeper than $\Gamma_{\rm intrinsic}=1.6$. Contrary to some previous claims, but in agreement with other reports, we find no evidence for any truly diffuse background components in addition to those from resolved sources. We have tested in particular the effects of a photon background originating at very high redshifts, as would be the emissions by a primeval population of Population III stars around $z\sim 10$. We could not identify any opacity features in our studied BLAZAR spectra consistent with such an emission and place a stringent limit on such a diffuse photon intensity of ~6 nW/m2/sr between 1 and 4 μm. Conclusions. TeV observations of BLAZARs are consistent with background radiation contributed by resolved galaxies in the optical and IR, and exclude prominent additional components from very high-z unresolved sources.
ABSTRACT
Extreme high-energy peaked BL Lac objects (EHBLs) are an emerging class of blazars with exceptional spectral properties. The non-thermal emission of the relativistic jet peaks in the ...spectral energy distribution (SED) plot with the synchrotron emission in X-rays and with the gamma-ray emission in the TeV range or above. These high photon energies may represent a challenge for the standard modelling of these sources. They are important for the implications on the indirect measurements of the extragalactic background light, the intergalactic magnetic field estimate, and the possible origin of extragalactic high-energy neutrinos. In this paper, we perform a comparative study of the multiwavelength spectra of 32 EHBL objects detected by the Swift-BAT telescope in the hard X-ray band and by the Fermi-LAT telescope in the high-energy gamma-ray band. The source sample presents uniform spectral properties in the broad-band SEDs, except for the TeV gamma-ray band where an interesting bimodality seems to emerge. This suggests that the EHBL class is not homogeneous, and a possible subclassification of the EHBLs may be unveiled. Furthermore, in order to increase the number of EHBLs and settle their statistics, we discuss the potential detectability of the 14 currently TeV gamma-ray undetected sources in our sample by the Cherenkov telescopes.
Abstract
The geometry of dust distribution within the inner regions of active galactic nuclei (AGN) is still a debated issue and relates directly to the AGN unified scheme. Traditionally, models ...discussed in the literature assume one of the two distinct dust distributions in what is believed to be a toroidal region around the supermassive black holes: a continuous distribution, customarily referred to as smooth, and a concentration of dust in clumps or clouds, referred to as clumpy.
In this paper we perform a thorough comparison between two of the most popular models in the literature, namely the smooth models by Fritz et al. and the clumpy models by Nenkova et al., in their common parameter space. Particular attention is paid to the silicate features at ∼9.7 and ∼18 μm, the width of the infrared bump, the near-infrared index and the luminosity at 12.3 μm, all previously reported as possible diagnostic tools to distinguish between the two dust distributions. We find that, due to different dust chemical compositions used in the two models, the behaviour of the silicate features at 9.7 and 18 μm is quite distinct between the two models. The width of the infrared bump and the peak of the infrared emission can take comparable values; their distributions do, however, vary. The near-infrared index is also quite different, due partly to the primary sources adopted by the two models. Models with matched parameters do not produce similar spectral energy distributions (SEDs) and virtually no random parameter combinations can result in seemingly identical SEDs.
Near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) is a noninvasive neuroimaging tool for studying evoked hemodynamic changes within the brain. By this technique, changes in the optical absorption of light are ...recorded over time and are used to estimate the functionally evoked changes in cerebral oxyhemoglobin and deoxyhemoglobin concentrations that result from local cerebral vascular and oxygen metabolic effects during brain activity. Over the past three decades this technology has continued to grow, and today NIRS studies have found many niche applications in the fields of psychology, physiology, and cerebral pathology. The growing popularity of this technique is in part associated with a lower cost and increased portability of NIRS equipment when compared with other imaging modalities, such as functional magnetic resonance imaging and positron emission tomography. With this increasing number of applications, new techniques for the processing, analysis, and interpretation of NIRS data are continually being developed. We review some of the time-series and functional analysis techniques that are currently used in NIRS studies, we describe the practical implementation of various signal processing techniques for removing physiological, instrumental, and motion-artifact noise from optical data, and we discuss the unique aspects of NIRS analysis in comparison with other brain imaging modalities. These methods are described within the context of the MATLAB-based graphical user interface program, HomER, which we have developed and distributed to facilitate the processing of optical functional brain data.
ABSTRACT
In this work, we analyse the connection between gas availability and the position of a region with respect to the spatially resolved main-sequence (MS) relation. Following the procedure ...presented in Enia et al. (2020), for a sample of five face-on, grand design spiral galaxies located on the MS we obtain estimates of stellar mass and star formation rate surface densities (Σ⋆ and ΣSFR) within cells of 500 pc size. Thanks to H i 21cm and 12CO(2–1) maps of comparable resolution, within the same cells we estimate the surface densities of the atomic (ΣH i) and molecular ($\Sigma _{\rm {H_2}}$) gas and explore the correlations among all these quantities. Σ⋆, ΣSFR, and $\Sigma _{\rm {H_2}}$ define a 3D relation whose projections are the spatially resolved MS, the Kennicutt–Schmidt law and the molecular gas MS. We find that $\Sigma _{\rm {H_2}}$ steadily increases along the MS relation and is almost constant perpendicular to it. ΣH i is nearly constant along the MS and increases in its upper envelope. As a result, ΣSFR can be expressed as a function of Σ⋆ and ΣH i, following the relation log ΣSFR = 0.97log Σ⋆ + 1.99log ΣH i − 11.11. We show that the total gas fraction significantly increases towards the starburst regions, accompanied by a weak increase in star formation efficiency. Finally, we find that H2/H i varies strongly with the distance from the MS, dropping dramatically in regions of intense star formation, where the UV radiation from newly formed stars dissociates the H2 molecule, illustrating the self-regulating nature of the star formation process.
Massive present-day early-type (elliptical and lenticular) galaxies probably gained the bulk of their stellar mass and heavy elements through intense, dust-enshrouded starbursts--that is, increased ...rates of star formation--in the most massive dark-matter haloes at early epochs. However, it remains unknown how soon after the Big Bang massive starburst progenitors exist. The measured redshift (z) distribution of dusty, massive starbursts has long been suspected to be biased low in z owing to selection effects, as confirmed by recent findings of systems with redshifts as high as ~5 (refs 2-4). Here we report the identification of a massive starburst galaxy at z = 6.34 through a submillimetre colour-selection technique. We unambiguously determined the redshift from a suite of molecular and atomic fine-structure cooling lines. These measurements reveal a hundred billion solar masses of highly excited, chemically evolved interstellar medium in this galaxy, which constitutes at least 40 per cent of the baryonic mass. A 'maximum starburst' converts the gas into stars at a rate more than 2,000 times that of the Milky Way, a rate among the highest observed at any epoch. Despite the overall downturn in cosmic star formation towards the highest redshifts, it seems that environments mature enough to form the most massive, intense starbursts existed at least as early as 880 million years after the Big Bang.
We describe improved modelling of the emission by dust in a toroidal-like structure heated by a central illuminating source within active galactic nuclei (AGNs). We have chosen a simple but realistic ...torus geometry, a flared disc, and a dust grain distribution function including a full range of grain sizes. The optical depth within the torus is computed in detail taking into account the different sublimation temperatures of the silicate and graphite grains, which solves previously reported inconsistencies in the silicate emission feature in type 1 AGNs. We exploit this model to study the spectral energy distributions (SEDs) of 58 extragalactic (both type 1 and type 2) sources using archival optical and infrared data. We find that both AGN and starburst contributions are often required to reproduce the observed SEDs, although in a few cases they are very well fitted by a pure AGN component. The AGN contribution to the far-infrared luminosity is found to be higher in type 1 sources, with all the type 2 requiring a substantial contribution from a circumnuclear starburst. Our results appear in agreement with the AGN unified scheme, because the distributions of key parameters of the torus models turn out to be compatible for type 1 and type 2 AGNs. Further support to the unification concept comes from comparison with medium-resolution infrared spectra of type 1 AGNs by the Spitzer observatory, showing evidence for a moderate silicate emission around 10 μm, which our code reproduces. From our analysis we infer accretion flows in the inner nucleus of local AGNs characterized by high equatorial optical depths (AV≃ 100), moderate sizes (Rmax < 100 pc) and very high covering factors (f≃ 80 per cent) on average.
Context. Measurements of the extragalactic background light (EBL) are a fundamental source of information on the collective emission of cosmic sources. Aims. At infrared wavelengths, however, these ...measurements are precluded by the overwhelming dominance from interplanetary dust emission and the Galactic infrared foreground. Only at λ > 300 μm, where the foregrounds are minimal, has the infrared EBL (IR EBL) been inferred from analysis of the COBE maps. The present paper aims to assess the possibility of evaluating the IR EBL from a few micrometers up to the peak of the emission at > 100 μm using an indirect method that avoids the foreground problem. Methods. To this purpose we exploit the effect of pair-production from gamma-gamma interaction by considering the highest-energy photons emitted by extragalactic sources and their interaction with the IR EBL photons. We simulate observations of a variety of low-redshift emitters with the forthcoming Imaging Atmospheric Cherenkov Telescope (IACT) arrays (CTA in particular) and water Cherenkov observatories (LHAASO, HAWC, SWGO) to assess their suitability to constrain the EBL at such long wavelengths. Results. We find that even under the most extremely favorable conditions of huge emission flares, extremely high-energy emitting blazars are not very useful for our purpose because they are much too distant (> 100 Mpc the nearest ones, MKN 501 and MKN 421). Observations of more local AGNs displaying very high-energy emission, like low-redshift radio galaxies (M 87, IC 310, Centaurus A), are better suited and will potentially allow us to constrain the EBL up to λ ≃ 100 μm.
An essential prerequisite for any systems-level understanding of cellular functions is to correctly uncover and annotate all functional interactions among proteins in the cell. Toward this goal, ...remarkable progress has been made in recent years, both in terms of experimental measurements and computational prediction techniques. However, public efforts to collect and present protein interaction information have struggled to keep up with the pace of interaction discovery, partly because protein-protein interaction information can be error-prone and require considerable effort to annotate. Here, we present an update on the online database resource Search Tool for the Retrieval of Interacting Genes (STRING); it provides uniquely comprehensive coverage and ease of access to both experimental as well as predicted interaction information. Interactions in STRING are provided with a confidence score, and accessory information such as protein domains and 3D structures is made available, all within a stable and consistent identifier space. New features in STRING include an interactive network viewer that can cluster networks on demand, updated on-screen previews of structural information including homology models, extensive data updates and strongly improved connectivity and integration with third-party resources. Version 9.0 of STRING covers more than 1100 completely sequenced organisms; the resource can be reached at http://string-db.org.
ABSTRACT
We analyse the spatially resolved relation between stellar mass (M⋆) and star formation rate (SFR) in disc galaxies (i.e. the main sequence, MS). The studied sample includes eight nearby ...face-on grand-design spirals, e.g. the descendant of high-redshift, rotationally supported star-forming galaxies. We exploit photometric information over 23 bands, from the UV to the far-IR, from the publicly available DustPedia data base to build spatially resolved maps of stellar mass and SFRs on sub-galactic scales of 0.5–1.5 kpc, by performing a spectral energy distribution fitting procedure that accounts for both the observed and obscured star formation processes, over a wide range of internal galaxy environments (bulges, spiral arms, and outskirts). With more than 30 000 physical cells, we have derived a definition of the local spatially resolved MS per unit area for discs, log (ΣSFR) = 0.82log (Σ*) − 8.69. This is consistent with the bulk of recent results based on optical IFU, using the H α line emission as an SFR tracer. Our work extends the analysis at lower sensitivities in both M⋆ and SFR surface densities, up to a factor of ∼10. The self-consistency of the MS relation over different spatial scales, from sub-galactic to galactic, as well as with a rescaled correlation obtained for high-redshift galaxies, clearly proves its universality.
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