Open Hardware-based microcontrollers, especially the Arduino platform, have become a comparably easy-to-use tool for rapid prototyping and implementing creative solutions. Such devices in combination ...with dedicated front-end electronics can offer low-cost alternatives for student projects, slow control and independently operating small-scale instrumentation. The capabilities can be extended to data taking and signal analysis at mid-level rates. Two detector realizations are presented, which cover the readouts of proportional counter tubes and of scintillators or wavelength-shifting fibers with silicon photomultipliers (SiPMs). The SiPMTrigger realizes a small-scale design for coincidence readout of SiPMs as a trigger or veto detector. It consists of a custom mixed signal front-end board featuring signal amplification, discrimination and a coincidence unit for rates of up to 200 kHz. The nCatcher transforms an Arduino Nano to a proportional counter readout with pulse shape analysis: time over threshold measurement and a 10-bit analog-to-digital converter for pulse heights. The device is suitable for low-to-medium-rate environments up to 5 kHz, where a good signal-to-noise ratio is crucial. We showcase the monitoring of thermal neutrons. For data taking and slow control, a logger board is presented that features an SD card and GSM/LoRa interface.
Due to their unique characteristics, cosmic-ray neutron sensors (CRNSs) have potential in monitoring and informing irrigation management, and thus optimising the use of water resources in ...agriculture. However, practical methods to monitor small, irrigated fields with CRNSs are currently not available and the challenges of targeting areas smaller than the CRNS sensing volume are mostly unaddressed. In this study, CRNSs are used to continuously monitor soil moisture (SM) dynamics in two irrigated apple orchards (Agia, Greece) of ~1.2 ha. The CRNS-derived SM was compared to a reference SM obtained by weighting a dense sensor network. In the 2021 irrigation period, CRNSs could only capture the timing of irrigation events, and an ad hoc calibration resulted in improvements only in the hours before irrigation (RMSE between 0.020 and 0.035). In 2022, a correction based on neutron transport simulations, and on SM measurements from a non-irrigated location, was tested. In the nearby irrigated field, the proposed correction improved the CRNS-derived SM (from 0.052 to 0.031 RMSE) and, most importantly, allowed for monitoring the magnitude of SM dynamics that are due to irrigation. The results are a step forward in using CRNSs as a decision support system in irrigation management.
Investigations of neutron transport through air and soil by Monte Carlo simulations led to major advancements toward a precise interpretation of measurements; they particularly improved the ...understanding of the cosmic-ray neutron footprint. Up to now, the conversion of soil moisture to a detectable neutron count rate has relied mainly on the equation presented by Desilets and Zreda in 2010. While in general a hyperbolic expression can be derived from theoretical considerations, their empiric parameterization needs to be revised for two reasons. Firstly, a rigorous mathematical treatment reveals that the values of the four parameters are ambiguous because their values are not independent. We found a three-parameter equation with unambiguous values of the parameters that is equivalent in any other respect to the four-parameter equation. Secondly, high-resolution Monte-Carlo simulations revealed a systematic deviation of the count rate to soil moisture relation especially for extremely dry conditions as well as very humid conditions. That is a hint that a smaller contribution to the intensity was forgotten or not adequately treated by the conventional approach. Investigating the above-ground neutron flux through a broadly based Monte-Carlo simulation campaign revealed a more detailed understanding of different contributions to this signal, especially targeting air humidity corrections. The packages MCNP and URANOS were used to derive a function able to describe the respective dependencies, including the effect of different hydrogen pools and the detector-specific response function. The new relationship has been tested at two exemplary measurement sites, and its remarkable performance allows for a promising prospect of more comprehensive data quality in the future.
Core Ideas
Cosmic‐ray neutron sensing (CRNS) was used in a drip‐irrigated field.
Soil water content was estimated from CRNS.
Neutron transport was simulated for the drip‐irrigated field.
CRNS has ...limitations for irrigation scheduling of drip‐irrigated fields.
Irrigation is essential for maintaining food production in water‐scarce regions. The irrigation need depends on the water content of the soil, which we measured with the novel technique of cosmic‐ray neutron sensing (CRNS). The potential of the CRNS technique for drip irrigation scheduling was explored in this study for the Picassent site near Valencia, Spain. To support the experimental evidence, the neutron transport simulation URANOS was used to simulate the effect of drip irrigation on the neutron counts. The overall soil water content (SWC) in the CRNS footprint was characterized with a root mean square error <0.03 cm
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, but the experimental dataset indicated methodological limitations to detect drip water input. Both experimental data and simulation results suggest that the large‐area neutron response to drip irrigation is insignificant in our specific case using a standard CRNS probe. Because of the small area of irrigated patches and short irrigation time, the limited SWC changes due to drip irrigation were not visible from the measured neutron intensity changes. Our study shows that CRNS modeling can be used to assess the suitability of the CRNS technique for certain applications. While the standard CRNS probe was not able to detect small‐scale drip irrigation patterns, the method might be applicable for larger irrigated areas, in drier regions, and for longer and more intense irrigation periods. Since statistical noise is the main limitation of the CRNS measurement, the capability of the instrument could be improved in future studies by larger and more efficient neutron detectors.
Cosmic-Ray neutron sensors are widely used to determine soil moisture on the hectare scale. Precise measurements, especially in the case of mobile application, demand for neutron detectors with high ...counting rates and high signal-to-noise ratios. For a long time Cosmic Ray Neutron Sensing (CRNS) instruments have relied on 3He as an efficient neutron converter. Its ongoing scarcity demands for technological solutions using alternative converters, which are 6Li and 10B. Recent developments lead to a modular neutron detector consisting of several 10B-lined proportional counter tubes, which feature high counting rates via its large surface area. The modularity allows for individual shieldings of different segments within the detector featuring the capability of gaining spectral information about the detected neutrons. This opens the possibility for active signal correction, especially useful when applied to mobile measurements, where the influence of constantly changing near-field to the overall signal should be corrected. Furthermore, the signal-to-noise ratio could be increased by combining pulse height and pulse length spectra to discriminate between neutrons and other environmental radiation. This novel detector therefore combines high-selective counting electronics with large-scale instrumentation technology.
Cosmic radiation on Earth responds to heliospheric, geomagnetic, atmospheric, and lithospheric changes. In order to use its signal for soil hydrological monitoring, the signal of thermal and ...epithermal neutron detectors needs to be corrected for external influencing factors. However, theories about the neutron response to soil water, air pressure, air humidity, and incoming cosmic radiation are still under debate. To challenge these theories, we isolated the neutron response from almost any terrestrial changes by operating a bare and a moderated neutron detector in a buoy on a lake in Germany from July 15 to 02 December 2014. We found that the count rate over water has been better predicted by a theory from Köhli et al. (2021, https://doi.org/10.3389/frwa.2020.544847) compared to the traditional approach from Desilets et al. (2010, https://doi.org/10.1029/2009wr008726). We further found strong linear correlation parameters to air pressure (β = 0.0077 mb−1) and air humidity (α = 0.0054 m3/g) for epithermal neutrons, while thermal neutrons responded with α = 0.0023 m3/g. Both approaches, from Rosolem et al. (2013, https://doi.org/10.1175/jhm‐d‐12‐0120.1) and from Köhli et al. (2021, https://doi.org/10.3389/frwa.2020.544847), were similarly able to remove correlations of epithermal neutrons to air humidity. Correction for incoming radiation proved to be necessary for both thermal and epithermal neutrons, for which we tested different neutron monitor stations and correction methods. Here, the approach from Zreda et al. (2012, https://doi.org/10.5194/hess‐16‐4079‐2012) worked best with the Jungfraujoch monitor in Switzerland, while the approach from McJannet and Desilets (2023, https://doi.org/10.1029/2022wr033889) was able to adequately rescale data from more remote neutron monitors. However, no approach was able to sufficiently remove the signal from a major Forbush decrease event on 13 September, to which thermal and epithermal neutrons showed a comparatively strong response. The buoy detector experiment provided a unique data set for empirical testing of traditional and new theories on Cosmic‐Ray Neutron Sensing. It could serve as a local alternative to reference data from remote neutron monitors.
Plain Language Summary
Cosmic radiation near the Earth's surface is influenced by solar activity, atmospheric conditions, and changes of nearby soil moisture or snow. To better understand how cosmic‐ray neutron measurements should be corrected for meteorological effects, we operated a detector for low‐energy neutrons in a buoy on a lake in Germany for 5 months in 2014. Since the water content in the surroundings is constant, we were able to isolate the signal from almost any ground‐related disturbances. With this instrument, we challenged traditional and recent theories on the neutron response to water, air humidity, and to reference data from high‐energy neutron monitors around the world. We found that in some cases, recent theories showed superior performance over traditional approaches. We also found a stronger response of the neutrons detected by the buoy to a major solar event than was observed by traditional neutron monitors. The concept of a neutron detector on a lake could be useful as a reference station for similar land‐side detectors and help provide more reliable soil moisture products.
Key Points
Neutron detectors on a buoy were deployed in the center of a lake for 5 months
Thermal and epithermal signals correlated with air pressure, air humidity, and secondary cosmic rays from neutron monitors
Data was used to challenge traditional correction approaches and to serve as an alternative neutron monitor
The technique of pulsed neutron–neutron logging (PNNL) is applied in geosciences and petrol chemistry in order to measure hydrogen sources in downhole oil exploration. 14.1MeV neutrons from a ...deuterium–tritium fusion source provide also the capabilities for a time-of-flight based approach to identify the fillers of unexploded ordnances (UXO) by characterizing their hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen contents. Using the Monte-Carlo tool URANOS we find that soil moisture is the key variable for the penetration depth of neutrons into the ground. Later detection windows after the initial pulse are to be preferred over earlier thresholds. Taking exemplarily a 100lb and a 1000lb bomb the range in a typical soil configuration is found to lie between 10cm and 50cm at a soil bulk density of 1.4g/cm3. Yet, other objects like a steel bar can cause similar signatures of signal dampening.
•Monte Carlo simulations using URANOS were employed for unexploded ordnance detection.•Pulsed neutron–neutron logging can detect aircraft bombs in the ground.•Detection range lies between 10cm and 50cm.•Range depends on soil moisture at bulk density.•Other object like steel bars can create similar signal characteristics.
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This paper presents a new theoretical approach to estimate the contribution of distant areas to the measurement signal of cosmic-ray neutron detectors for snow and soil moisture monitoring. The ...algorithm is based on the local neutron production and the transport mechanism, given by the neutron–moisture relationship and the radial intensity function, respectively. The purely analytical approach has been validated with physics-based neutron transport simulations for heterogeneous soil moisture patterns, exemplary landscape features, and remote fields at a distance. We found that the method provides good approximations of simulated signal contributions in patchy soils with typical deviations of less than 1 %. Moreover, implications of this concept have been investigated for the neutron–moisture relationship, where the signal contribution of an area has the potential to explain deviating shapes of this curve that are often reported in the literature. Finally, the method has been used to develop a new practical footprint definition to express whether or not a distant area's soil moisture change is actually detectable in terms of measurement precision. The presented concepts answer long-lasting questions about the influence of distant landscape structures in the integral footprint of the sensor without the need for computationally expensive simulations. The new insights are highly relevant to support signal interpretation, data harmonization, and sensor calibration and will be particularly useful for sensors positioned in complex terrain or on agriculturally managed sites.
Cosmic-ray neutron sensing (CRNS) allows for non-invasive soil moisture estimations at the field scale. The derivation of soil moisture generally relies on secondary cosmic-ray neutrons in the ...epithermal to fast energy ranges. Most approaches and processing techniques for observed neutron intensities are based on the assumption of homogeneous site conditions or of soil moisture patterns with correlation lengths shorter than the measurement footprint of the neutron detector. However, in view of the non-linear relationship between neutron intensities and soil moisture, it is questionable whether these assumptions are applicable. In this study, we investigated how a non-uniform soil moisture distribution within the footprint impacts the CRNS soil moisture estimation and how the combined use of epithermal and thermal neutrons can be advantageous in this case. Thermal neutrons have lower energies and a substantially smaller measurement footprint around the sensor than epithermal neutrons. Analyses using the URANOS (Ultra RApid Neutron-Only Simulation) Monte Carlo simulations to investigate the measurement footprint dynamics at a study site in northeastern Germany revealed that the thermal footprint mainly covers mineral soils in the near-field to the sensor while the epithermal footprint also covers large areas with organic soils. We found that either combining the observed thermal and epithermal neutron intensities by a rescaling method developed in this study or adjusting all parameters of the transfer function leads to an improved calibration against the reference soil moisture measurements in the near-field compared to the standard approach and using epithermal neutrons alone. We also found that the relationship between thermal and epithermal neutrons provided an indicator for footprint heterogeneity. We, therefore, suggest that the combined use of thermal and epithermal neutrons offers the potential of a spatial disaggregation of the measurement footprint in terms of near- and far-field soil moisture dynamics.
Above-ground cosmic-ray neutron sensing (CRNS) allows for the non-invasive estimation of the field-scale soil moisture content in the upper decimetres of the soil. However, large parts of the deeper ...vadose zone remain outside of its observational window. Retrieving soil moisture information from these deeper layers requires extrapolation, modelling or other methods, all of which come with methodological challenges. Against this background, we investigate CRNS for downhole soil moisture measurements in deeper layers of the vadose zone. To render calibration with in situ soil moisture measurements unnecessary, we rescaled neutron intensities observed below the terrain surface with intensities measured above a waterbody.