Abstract Non-alcoholic fatty liver (NAFLD) is the most common liver disease worldwide, progressing from simple steatosis to necroinflammation and fibrosis (leading to non-alcoholic steatohepatitis, ...NASH), and in some cases to cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. Inflammation, oxidative stress and insulin resistance are involved in NAFLD development and progression. NAFLD has been associated with several cardiovascular (CV) risk factors including obesity, dyslipidemia, hyperglycemia, hypertension and smoking. NAFLD is also characterized by atherogenic dyslipidemia, postprandial lipemia and high-density lipoprotein (HDL) dysfunction. Most importantly, NAFLD patients have an increased risk for both liver and CV disease (CVD) morbidity and mortality. In this narrative review, the associations between NAFLD, dyslipidemia and vascular disease in NAFLD patients are discussed. NAFLD treatment is also reviewed with a focus on lipid-lowering drugs. Finally, future perspectives in terms of both NAFLD diagnostic biomarkers and therapeutic targets are considered.
Abstract
Aims
Little is known about the long-term association between low-carbohydrate diets (LCDs) and mortality. We evaluated the link between LCD and overall or cause-specific mortality using both ...individual data and pooled prospective studies.
Methods and results
Data on diets from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES; 1999–2010) were analysed. Multivariable Cox proportional hazards were applied to determine the hazard ratios and 95% confidence intervals (CIs) for mortality for each quartile of the LCD score, with the lowest quartile (Q1—with the highest carbohydrates intake) used as reference. We used adjusted Cox regression to determine the risk ratio (RR) and 95% CI, as well as random effects models and generic inverse variance methods to synthesize quantitative and pooled data, followed by a leave-one-out method for sensitivity analysis. Overall, 24 825 participants from NHANES study were included (mean follow-up 6.4 years). After adjustment, participants with the lowest carbohydrates intake (quartile 4 of LCD) had the highest risk of overall (32%), cardiovascular disease (CVD) (50%), cerebrovascular (51%), and cancer (36%) mortality. In the same model, the association between LCD and overall mortality was stronger in the non-obese (48%) than in the obese (19%) participants. Findings on pooled data of nine prospective cohort studies with 462 934 participants (mean follow-up 16.1 years) indicated a positive association between LCD and overall (RR 1.22, 95% CI 1.06–1.39, P < 0.001, I2 = 8.6), CVD (RR 1.13, 95% CI 1.02–1.24, P < 0.001, I2 = 11.2), and cancer mortality (RR 1.08, 95% CI 1.01–1.14, P = 0.02, I2 = 10.3). These findings were robust in sensitivity analyses.
Conclusion
Our study suggests a potentially unfavourable association of LCD with overall and cause-specific mortality, based on both new analyses of an established cohort and by pooling previous cohort studies. Given the nature of the study, causality cannot be proven; we cannot rule out residual bias. Nevertheless, further studies are needed to extend these important findings, which if confirmed, may suggest a need to rethink recommendations for LCD in clinical practice.
Clinical trials with sodium–glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors (empagliflozin, dapagliflozin, and canagliflozin) have shown a decrease in the progression of chronic kidney disease (CKD). ...SGLT2 inhibitors represent a new category of oral antidiabetic agents that can also reduce systolic and diastolic blood pressure, as well as serum uric acid, and improve the glomerular filtration rate. Apart from affecting renal hemodynamics and glycotoxicity, evidence suggests that SGLT2 inhibitors may be renoprotective due to their effects on inflammation in renal tissues. Inflammatory responses play a prominent role in the pathophysiology of CKD as several structural and functional disorders of renal failure are strongly related to the overproduction of proinflammatory mediators. The present review discusses the anti‐inflammatory properties of SGLT2 inhibitors. The different molecular pathways through which SGLT2 inhibitors may affect inflammation in the kidneys are also commented upon.
Clinical trials with sodium–glucose cotransporter 2 (SGLT2) inhibitors (empagliflozin, dapagliflozin, and canagliflozin) have shown a decrease in the progression of chronic kidney disease (CKD). SGLT2 inhibitors represent a new category of oral antidiabetic agents that can also reduce systolic and diastolic blood pressure, as well as serum uric acid, and improve the glomerular filtration rate; apart from affecting renal hemodynamics and glycotoxicity, evidence suggests that SGLT2 inhibitors may be renoprotective due to their effects on inflammation in renal tissues. Inflammatory responses play a prominent role in the pathophysiology of CKD as several structural and functional disorders of renal failure are strongly related to the overproduction of proinflammatory mediators; the present review discusses the anti‐inflammatory properties of SGLT2 inhibitors and the different molecular pathways through which SGLT2 inhibitors may affect inflammation in the kidneys are also commented upon.
Conflicting results suggest a link between serum uric acid (SUA), inflammation and glucose/insulin homeostasis; however, the role of adiposity in this relationship is not clear. Therefore, we ...evaluated the role of different adiposity factors, including central body mass index (BMI), peripheral waist circumference (WC), and visceral adiposity visceral adipose tissue (apVAT), on the association between SUA, inflammation and glucose/insulin homeostasis among US adults.
Data were extracted from the 2005–2010 US National Health and Nutrition Examination Surveys. Overall, 16,502 participants were included in the analysis (mean age = 47.1 years, 48.2% men). Analysis of co-variance and “conceptus causal mediation” models were applied, while accounting for survey design.
Corrected models showed that subjects with higher SUA levels have a less favorable profile of inflammation and glucose/insulin homeostasis parameters (all p < 0.001). We found that all our potential mediators (BMI, WC and apVAT) had an impact (to various extents) on the link between variables, including serum C-reactive protein (CRP), apolipoprotein-B (apoB), insulin resistance markers, 2-h blood glucose (2hG) and triglyceride, and fasting blood glucose (FBG) (TyG) index (all p < .001), while none of the potential mediators (BMI, apVAT, WC) had an impact on the link between FBG and glycated hemoglobin with SUA (all p > 0.05). We have found that all of our mediators partially mediated the link between inflammation and glucose/insulin homeostasis parameters and SUA. Of note, apVAT fully mediated the association between SUA and 2hG.
By applying advanced statistical techniques, we shed light on the complex link of SUA with inflammation and glucose/insulin homeostasis and quantify the role of adiposity factors in that link.
•To evaluated the role of different adiposity factors on the association between serum uric acid, inflammation and glucose/insulin homeostasis.•We accomplished this aim by applying in large and representative sample size of the US adults.•We shed light on the complex link of SUA with inflammation and glucose/insulin homeostasis.
Apoptosis may contribute to a significant proportion of neuron death following acute brain ischemia (ABI), but the underlying mechanisms are still not fully understood. Brain ischemia may lead to ...stroke, which is one of the main causes of long-term morbidity and mortality in both developed and developing countries. Therefore, stroke prevention and treatment is clinically important. There are two important separate areas of the brain during ABI: the ischemic core and the ischemic penumbra. The ischemic core of the brain experiences a sudden reduction of blood flow, just minutes after ischemic attack with irreversible injury and subsequent cell death. On the other hand, apoptosis within the ischemic penumbra may occur after several hours or days, while necrosis starts in the first hours after the onset of ABI in the ischemic core. ABI is characterized by key molecular events that initiate apoptosis in many cells, such as overproduction of free radicals, Ca2+ overload and excitotoxicity. These changes in cellular homeostasis may trigger either necrosis or apoptosis, which often depends on cell type, cell age, and location in the brain. Apoptosis results in DNA fragmentation, degradation of cytoskeletal and nuclear proteins, cross-linking of proteins, formation of apoptotic bodies, expression of ligands for phagocytic cell receptors and finally uptake by phagocytic cells. This review focuses on recent findings based on animal and human studies regarding the apoptotic mechanisms of neuronal death following ABI and the development of potential neuroprotective agents that reduce morbidity. The effects of statins on stroke prevention and treatment as well as on apoptotic mediators are also considered.
Metabolic syndrome (MetS) is a cluster of central obesity, dyslipidaemia, insulin resistance and hypertension. MetS frequently co-exists with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), which is ...characterized by fat accumulation in the liver in the absence of alcohol abuse, viral hepatitis and other causes of chronic liver diseases. Both MetS and NAFLD are associated with an increased risk for cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes mellitus. There are also other associations between MetS and NAFLD. In the present narrative review, we discuss the links between MetS and NAFLD in terms of prevalence, risk factors and treatment (both lifestyle interventions and drug therapy). Such associations highlight the common pathophysiological pathways of these metabolic disorders, although data for an independent association are not robust. Nevertheless, NAFLD may be regarded as a hepatic manifestation of MetS.
To investigate the association of triglycerides/glucose index (TyG index), anthropometrically predicted visceral adipose tissue (apVAT), lipid accumulation product (LAP), visceral adiposity index ...(VAI) and triglycerides (TG):high density lipoprotein-cholesterol (HDL-C) ratio with insulin resistance (IR) in adult Americans.
This study was based on data from three NHANES cycles (2005 to 2010). The TyG index was calculated as ln TG×fasting glucose/2. VAI was calculated using gender-specific formulas: men waist circumference (WC)/39.68+(1.88×body mass index (BMI)×(TG/1.03)×(1.31/HDL-C); women: WC/36.58+(1.89×BMI)×(TG/0.81)×(1.52/HDL-C). LAP index was calculated as WC–65×TG in men, and WC–58×TG in women. Correlation and regression analyses accounted for the complex sampling of database.
A total of 18,318 subjects was included in this analysis mean age 47.6Years; 48.7% (n=8918) men. The homeostatic model assessment of insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) had a significant positive correlation with the TyG index (r=0.502), LAP (r=0.551), apVAT (r=0.454), TG:HDL-C ratio (r=0.441) and VAI (r=451) (p<0.001 for all comparisons). Bland-Altman plots showed no systematic errors. The optimal cut-off to predict HOMA-diagnosed IR was 0.473 (sensitivity=74.5% and specificity=72.7%) for LAP, 0.478 (75.9%, 71.9%) for TyG, 0.391 (70.4%, 67.1%) for VAI, 0.392 (77.1% and 62.0%) for TG:HDL-C ratio and 0.381 (63.8%, 74.8%) for apVAT.
The LAP index is a simple, cheap and accurate although not perfect, surrogate marker of HOMA-diagnosed IR among adult Americans. Moreover, it has higher predictability than other screening tools which traditionally applied. Among the markers, apVAT had the highest specificity and the TG:HDL-C ratio had the highest sensitivity.
Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is considered to be an independent cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk factor. However, simple steatosis has a benign clinical course without excess mortality. ...In contrast, the advanced form of NAFLD, non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) with liver fibrosis increases mortality by approximately 70%, due to an increase in CVD mortality by approximately 300%. Chronic kidney disease (CKD) may be caused by NAFLD/NASH and it substantially increases CVD risk, especially in the presence of type 2 diabetes mellitus. Moreover, CKD may trigger NAFLD/NASH deterioration in a vicious cycle. NAFLD/NASH is also related to increased arterial stiffness (AS), an independent CVD risk factor that further raises CVD risk. Diagnosis of advanced liver fibrosis (mainly by simple non-invasive tests), CKD, and increased AS should be made early in the course of NAFLD and treated appropriately. Lifestyle measures and statin treatment may help resolve NAFLD/NASH and beneficially affect the CVD risk factors mentioned above.
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