Mutations in regulatory regions including enhancers are an important source of variation and innovation during evolution. Enhancers can evolve by changes in the sequence, arrangement and repertoire ...of transcription factor binding sites, but whole enhancers can also be lost or gained in certain lineages in a process of turnover. The proopiomelanocortin gene (Pomc), which encodes a prohormone, is expressed in the pituitary and hypothalamus of all jawed vertebrates. We have previously described that hypothalamic Pomc expression in mammals is controlled by two enhancers—nPE1 and nPE2—that are derived from transposable elements and that presumably replaced the ancestral neuronal Pomc regulatory regions. Here, we show that nPE1 and nPE2, even though they are mammalian novelties with no homologous counterpart in other vertebrates, nevertheless can drive gene expression specifically to POMC neurons in the hypothalamus of larval and adult transgenic zebrafish. This indicates that when neuronal Pomc enhancers originated de novo during early mammalian evolution, the newly created cis- and trans-codes were similar to the ancestral ones. We also identify the neuronal regulatory region of zebrafish pomca and confirm that it is not homologous to the mammalian enhancers. Our work sheds light on the process of gene regulatory evolution by showing how a locus can undergo enhancer turnover and nevertheless maintain the ancestral transcriptional output.
Abstract
Chlamydia trachomatis is frequently detected in anorectal specimens from men and women. A recent hypothesis suggests that C. trachomatis is a natural commensal organism asymptomatically ...colonizing the gastrointestinal tract. In this study, we investigated the presence of chlamydial DNA and antigen in intestinal biopsy samples taken during colonoscopy. Cases (n = 32) were patients whose histopathology reports included the term ‘chlamydia’, suggesting a possible history of infection. Control patients (n = 234) did not have chlamydia mentioned in their histopathology report and all tested negative for Chlamydiaceae DNA by 23S ribosomal RNA-based real-time PCR. Amongst the cases, C. trachomatis DNA was detected in the appendix and colon of two female and one male patients. Chlamydia abortus DNA was present in the colon of a fourth female patient. Thus, chlamydial DNA could be demonstrated in intestinal biopsy samples proximal to the anorectal site and inclusions were identified in rectum or appendix of two of these patients by immunohistochemistry. However, the findings in two cases were compatible with sexually acquired C. trachomatis. The identification of C. trachomatis DNA/antigen does not prove the presence of active infection with replicating bacteria. Larger prospective studies on fresh tissue samples are required to confirm the data obtained in this study.
Chlamydia trachomatis DNA is present in intestinal biopsy samples of patients and might travel from the oral to the rectal site.
Mutations in regulatory regions including enhancers are an important source of variation and innovation during evolution. Enhancers can evolve by changes in the sequence, arrangement and repertoire ...of transcription factor binding sites, but whole enhancers can also be lost or gained in certain lineages in a process of turnover. The proopiomelanocortin gene (Pomc), which encodes a prohormone, is expressed in the pituitary and hypothalamus of all jawed vertebrates. We have previously described that hypothalamic Pomc expression in mammals is controlled by two enhancers—nPE1 and nPE2—that are derived from transposable elements and that presumably replaced the ancestral neuronal Pomc regulatory regions. Here, we show that nPE1 and nPE2, even though they are mammalian novelties with no homologous counterpart in other vertebrates, nevertheless can drive gene expression specifically to POMC neurons in the hypothalamus of larval and adult transgenic zebrafish. This indicates that when neuronal Pomc enhancers originated de novo during early mammalian evolution, the newly created cis- and trans-codes were similar to the ancestral ones. We also identify the neuronal regulatory region of zebrafish pomca and confirm that it is not homologous to the mammalian enhancers. Our work sheds light on the process of gene regulatory evolution by showing how a locus can undergo enhancer turnover and nevertheless maintain the ancestral transcriptional output.
Summary
We tested the hypothesis that dehydration‐induced alterations in red blood cell (RBC) membrane organisation or composition contribute to sickle cell adhesion in sickle cell disease (SCD). To ...examine the role of RBC hydration in adhesion to the subendothelial matrix protein thrombospondin‐1 (TSP), normal and sickle RBCs were incubated in buffers of varying tonicity and tested for adhesion to immobilised TSP under flow conditions. Sickle RBCs exhibited a decrease in TSP binding with increasing cell hydration (P < 0·005), suggesting that cellular dehydration may contribute to TSP adhesion. Consistent with this hypothesis, normal RBCs showed an increase in TSP adhesion with increasing dehydration (P < 0·01). Furthermore, increased TSP adhesion of normal RBCs could also be induced by isotonic dehydration using nystatin‐sucrose buffers. Finally, TSP adhesion of both sickle RBCs and dehydrated normal RBCs was inhibited by the anionic polysaccharides, chondroitin sulphate A and high molecular weight dextran sulphate, but not by competitors of CD47‐, band 3‐, or RBC phosphatidylserine‐mediated adhesion. More importantly, we found increased adhesion of nystatin‐sucrose dehydrated normal mouse RBCs to kidney capillaries following re‐infusion in vivo. In summary, these findings demonstrate that changes in hydration can significantly impact adhesion, causing normal erythrocytes to display adhesive properties similar to those of sickle cells and vice versa.
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