•Parkinson’s disease caused by neuron cell death that involved in the production of dopamine.•Dopamine's synthesis pathway, its receptor to which dopamine binds and performs its functions, and its ...synthesis.•Four different pathways of the dopaminergic system along with functions are concise in this review.
Parkinson’s disease is a neurodegenerative disease caused by the death of neurons, ie, cells critical to the production of dopamine, an important neurotransmitter in the brain. Here, we present a brief review of the dopamine synthetic pathway, binding to the dopamine receptors, and subsequent action. The production of dopamine (a monoamine neurotransmitter) occurs in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) of the substantia nigra, specifically in the hypothalamic nucleus and midbrain. Compared to other monoamines, dopamine is widely distributed in the olfactory bulb, midbrain substantia nigra, hypothalamus, VTA, retina, and the periaqueductal gray area. Dopamine receptors are large G-protein coupled receptor family members, of which there are five subtypes including D1, D2, D3, D4, and D5. These subtypes are further divided into two subclasses: D1-like family receptors (types 1 and 5) and D2-like family receptors (types 2, 3, and 4). Four different pathways and functions of the dopaminergic system are presented in this review. In the oxidation of dopamine, 5,6-indolequinone, dopamine-o-quinone, and aminochrome are formed. It is difficult to separate the roles of 5,6-indolequinone and dopamine-o-quinone in the degenerative process of Parkinson’s diseases due to their instability. The role of aminochrome in Parkinson’s disease is to form and stabilize the neurotoxic protofibrils of alpha-synuclein, mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress, and the degradation of protein by lysosomal systems and proteasomes. The neurotoxic effects of aminochrome can be inhibited by preventing the polymerization of 5,6-indolequinone, dopamine-o-quinone, and aminochrome into neuromelanin, by reducing aminochrome catalysis by DT-diaphorase, and by preventing dopamine oxidative deamination catalyzed by monoamine oxidase. In addition to these, the conversion of dopamine in the neuromelanin (NM) shows both protective and toxic roles. Therefore, the aims of this review were to discuss and explain the role of dopamine and explore its physiology and specificity in Parkinson's disease, as well as its role in other physiological functions.
Calcitonin (CT) is one of the factors affecting the embryo implantation, but its effects on the implantation window have not been fully investigated. The current study investigated the effects of CT ...on the endometrium receptivity by morphological study and evaluation of leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF), mucin 1 (Muc‐1), and microRNA (miRNA) Let‐7a in the ovarian stimulation and the normal ovarian cycle. Then the mechanism of the CT effects through the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling pathway was studied by using PP242. A total of 64 BALB/c mice were divided into the normal ovarian cycle and ovarian stimulation groups. Each group consisted of four subgroups: control, calcitonin, PP242, and calcitonin+PP242. CT and PP242 were injected on the fourth of pregnancy into the mice and 24 hr later all the mice were killed. The uterine tissue samples were used for morphological analysis, and endometrial cells were mechanically isolated for evaluation of gene and protein expression. The results showed that ovarian stimulation induced mTOR phosphorylation as well as increased expression of the Let‐7a miRNA. In addition, CT injection increased the expression of LIF and miRNA Let‐7a in ovarian stimulation similar to that in normal ovarian cycles. However, injection of PP242 reduced expression of miRNA Let‐7a and increased Muc‐1 expression in ovarian stimulation group. In conclusion, the administration of CT improved endometrial receptivity in mice. This phenomenon occurred by upregulation of LIF, miRNA Let‐7a and downregulation of Muc‐1 via mTOR signaling pathway.
Calcitonin improves endometrial receptivity via regulation of leukemia inhibitory factor, mucin 1, and microRNA Let‐7a in normal and ovarian stimulation mice.
Oxidative stress is a pathological condition occurring due to an imbalance between the oxidants and antioxidant defense systems in the body. Nuclear factor E2-related factor 2 (NRF2), encoded by the ...gene
, is the master regulator of phase II antioxidant enzymes that protect against oxidative stress and inflammation. NRF2/ARE signaling has been considered as a promising target against oxidative stress-mediated diseases like diabetes, fibrosis, neurotoxicity, and cancer. The consumption of dietary phytochemicals acts as an effective modulator of NRF2/ARE in various acute and chronic diseases. In the present review, we discussed the role of NRF2 in diabetes, Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), cancer, and atherosclerosis. Additionally, we discussed the phytochemicals like curcumin, quercetin, resveratrol, epigallocatechin gallate, apigenin, sulforaphane, and ursolic acid that have effectively modified NRF2 signaling and prevented various diseases in both in vitro and in vivo models. Based on the literature, it is clear that dietary phytochemicals can prevent diseases by (1) blocking oxidative stress-inhibiting inflammatory mediators through inhibiting Keap1 or activating
expression and its downstream targets in the nucleus, including HO-1, SOD, and CAT; (2) regulating NRF2 signaling by various kinases like GSK3beta, PI3/AKT, and MAPK; and (3) modifying epigenetic modulation, such as methylation, at the NRF2 promoter region; however, further investigation into other upstream signaling molecules like NRF2 and the effect of phytochemicals on them still need to be investigated in the near future.
Increasing awareness about the use of compounds obtained from natural sources exerting health-beneficial properties, including antimicrobial and antioxidant effects, led to increased number of ...research papers focusing on the study of functional properties of target compounds to be used as functional foods or in preventive medicine. Pomegranate has shown positive health properties due to the presence of bioactive constituents such as polyphenols, tannins, and anthocyanins. Punicalagin is the major antioxidant, abundantly found in pomegranate's peel. Research has shown that pomegranate polyphenols not only have a strong antioxidant capacity but they also inhibit the growth of pathogenic bacteria like V. cholera, P. aeruginosa and S. aureus, B. cereus, E. coli, and S. virulence factor, and inhibits fungi such as A. Ochraceus, and P. citrinum. Compounds of natural origin inhibit the growth of various pathogens by extending the shelf life of foodstuffs and assuring their safety. Therefore, the need to find compounds to be used in combination with antibiotics or as new antimicrobial sources, such as plant extracts. On the basis of the above discussion, this review focuses on the health benefits of pomegranate, by summarizing the current body of research focusing on pomegranate bioactive constituents and their therapeutic potential against some pathogenic microbes.
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Many food-derived phytochemicals and their derivatives represent a cornucopia of new anti-cancer compounds. Luteolin (3,4,5,7-tetrahydroxy flavone) is a flavonoid found in different ...plants such as vegetables, medicinal herbs, and fruits. It acts as an anticancer agent against various types of human malignancies such as lung, breast, glioblastoma, prostate, colon, and pancreatic cancers. It also blocks cancer development in vitro and in vivo by inhibition of proliferation of tumor cells, protection from carcinogenic stimuli, and activation of cell cycle arrest, and by inducing apoptosis through different signaling pathways. Luteolin can additionally reverse epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) through a mechanism that involves cytoskeleton shrinkage, induction of the epithelial biomarker E-cadherin expression, and by down-regulation of the mesenchymal biomarkers N-cadherin, snail, and vimentin. Furthermore, luteolin increases levels of intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) by activation of lethal endoplasmic reticulum stress response and mitochondrial dysfunction in glioblastoma cells, and by activation of ER stress-associated proteins expressions, including phosphorylation of eIF2α, PERK, CHOP, ATF4, and cleaved-caspase 12. Accordingly, the present review article summarizes the progress of recent research on luteolin against several human cancers.
Implantation of embryos needs endometrial receptivity. Mineralocorticoids is one of the causes influencing the implantation window. This study targeted to evaluation fludrocortisone different ...properties on endometrial receptivity. The objective of this study was to assess whether treatment with fludrocortisone could impact the expression of diverse genes and proteins that are involved in uterine receptivity in mice. In this study, 40 female adult BALB/c mice were used. The samples were allocated to four groups of ten. Control group (C) received: vehicle; fludrocortisone group (FCA): received 1.5 mg/kg fludrocortisone; PP242 group (PP242): received 30 mg/kg PP242; fludrocortisone+PP242 group (FCA+PP242): received fludrocortisone and PP242. Mice were killed on window implantation day after mating and confirmed pregnancy. The endometrial epithelium of mouse was collected to assess mRNA expression of leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF), mucin‐1 (MUC1), heparin‐binding epidermal growth factor (HB‐EGF), (Msx.1), miRNA Let‐7a, and miRNA 223‐3p as well as protein expression of extracellular signal‐regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2), mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), and eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E‐binding protein 1 (4E‐BP1) in the uterine using real‐time PCR and western blot, respectively. In comparison with the control group, fludrocortisone administration upregulated the expression of LIF, HB‐EGF, Msx.1, miRNA Let‐7a, ERK1/2, and mTOR in the epithelial endometrium. The PP242‐treated group demonstrated a significant rise in the expression of MUC1, miRNA 223‐3p and a remarkable decline in ERK1/2 and p‐4E‐BP1 levels in comparison with the control group. Combination therapy of (FCA+PP242) resulted in a remarkable rise in LIF, Msx‐1, HB‐EGF, ERK1/2, and mTOR levels, in comparison with the PP242 group. Furthermore, combination therapy of (FCA+PP242) downregulated the expression of MUC1 in comparison with the PP242‐treated group. According to the results, fludrocortisone affected uterine receptivity possibly by means of modulating the expression of genes involved in the uterine receptivity and activation of the ERK1/2‐mTOR pathway.
According to the results fludrocortisone affected uterine receptivity possibly by means of modulating the expression of genes involved in the uterine receptivity and activation of the ERK1/2‐mTOR pathway.
Pollen is recognized as an excellent dietary supplement for human nutrition, which is why it can be found in different forms on the market (granules, capsules, tablets, pellets, and powders). But, ...the digestibility of pollen's nutrients is strongly affected by the presence of a pollen shell, which can decrease the bioavailability of nutrients by 50% and more. Since consumers have become more aware of the benefits of a healthy diet and the necessity to improve pollen digestibility, different pollen-based functional food products have been developed and extensive studies were done to estimate the beneficial effects of pollen-based feed on animal growth, health, and rigor mortise stage. Considering the positive effects of pollen nutrients and phytometabolites on human and animal health, the aim of this paper was to give an overview of recent achievements in the application of pollen in the formulation of functional food and animal diets. Special attention was paid to the effects of pollen's addition on the nutritional, functional, techno-functional, and sensory properties of the new formulated food products. Anti-nutritional properties of pollen were also discussed. This review points out the benefits of pollen addition to food and feed and the possible directions in the further development of functional food and feed for the wellbeing of everyone.
Mushrooms are considered as potential source of many essential nutrients and therapeutic bioactive compounds. Agaricus bisporus belongs to Basidiomycetes family and the most important commercially ...cultivated mushroom in the world. The rich nutrients like carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, fibers, minerals, and vitamins present this mushroom as famous healthy food. Moreover, because of the presence of some active ingredients, such as polysaccharides, lipopolysaccharides, essential amino acids, peptides, glycoproteins, nucleosides, triterpenoids, lectins, fatty acids and their derivatives, these mushrooms have been reported to have antimicrobial, anticancer, antidiabetic, antihypercholesterolemic, antihypertensive, hepatoprotective and antioxidant activities. This study is focused on reviewing the recent studies published in the medical and nutritional properties of Agaricus bisporus. Investigations on the mushroom have accelerated during the last ten years so that only reports published after 2006 have been considered.
Consumers all across the world are looking for the most delectable and appealing foods, while also demanding products that are safer, more nutritious, and healthier. Substitution of synthetic ...colorants with natural colorants has piqued consumer and market interest in recent years. Due to increasing demand, extensive research has been conducted to find natural and safe food additives, such as natural pigments, that may have health benefits. Natural colorants are made up of a variety of pigments, many of which have significant biological potential. Because of the promising health advantages, natural colorants are gaining immense interest in the dairy industry. This review goes over the use of various natural colorants in dairy products which can provide desirable color as well as positive health impacts. The purpose of this review is to provide an in-depth look into the field of food (natural or synthetic) colorants applied in dairy products as well as their potential health benefits, safety, general trends, and future prospects in food science and technology. In this paper, we listed a plethora of applications of natural colorants in various milk-based products.
Genomic imprinting results in monoallelic expression of genes in mammals and flowering plants. Understanding the function of imprinted genes improves our knowledge of the regulatory processes in the ...genome. In this study, we have employed classification and clustering algorithms with attribute weighting to specify the unique attributes of both imprinted (monoallelic) and biallelic expressed genes. We have obtained characteristics of 22 known monoallelically expressed (imprinted) and 8 biallelic expressed genes that have been experimentally validated alongside 208 randomly selected genes in bovine (Bos taurus). Attribute weighting methods and various supervised and unsupervised algorithms in machine learning were applied. Unique characteristics were discovered and used to distinguish mono and biallelic expressed genes from each other in bovine. To obtain the accuracy of classification, 10-fold cross-validation with concerning each combination of attribute weighting (feature selection) and machine learning algorithms, was used. Our approach was able to accurately predict mono and biallelic genes using the genomics and proteomics attributes.
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