Background and Objectives: Repetitive thought (RT) strategies have been linked to a range of negative outcomes following traumatic interpersonal events but are proposed to serve an adaptive function ...under particular circumstances. This study examined outcomes following RT within a transdiagnostic framework, and explored the potentially adaptive nature of trait-like and event-related RT. Design: The centrality of a traumatic event to one's identity was explored as a context under which the adaptive nature of RT might change. Young adults with interpersonal violence experiences (N = 163) reported use of trait-like and event-related RT, centrality of the event, depressive, anxious, and posttraumatic stress symptoms (PTSS), posttraumatic depreciation and posttraumatic growth. Methods: Hierarchical multiple regression analyses were used to examine main and moderating effects of four types of RT and event centrality on outcome variables. Results: Centrality positively predicted depressive symptoms and PTSS, depreciation, and growth. Brooding RT positively predicted all negative outcomes. Reflecting RT positively predicted anxious symptoms and PTSS and depreciation. Only deliberate RT positively predicted growth. Centrality did not moderate any examined relationships. Conclusions: Findings highlight the importance of addressing specific types of RT in interventions with survivors and of considering centrality as a robust contributor to outcomes following interpersonal violence.
This article reviews past research on the parenting characteristics of childhood sexual abuse survivors and presents the results of a qualitative study exploring the women's perspectives on mothering ...as a survivor. Grounded theory was used in the collection and analysis of the data. Data sources included the narrative responses of 79 women (mean age = 38.2 years) and in-depth interviews of a purposive sample of 15 women (mean age = 39 years). They had an average of 2.2 children, ranging in age from 5 months to young adulthood. The theoretical model identified through analysis of data using the constant comparison method was entitled "The Hard Work of Mothering as a Survivor." Processes emerged that described the ways participants managed the work of mothering in light of memories of the abuse and attempts to heal from this earlier trauma. The conditions for committing to the work included becoming aware of and accepting the reality of the abuse and how it affected one's life, and taking on the hard work of developing a mothering self. This included expanding awareness, developing and evaluating a personal model of mothering, navigating typical and abuse salient parenting challenges, mothering through the pain of recovery, and battling for balance. The findings highlighted the dynamic, multifaceted nature of recovery and resilience for these mothers and the need for an increased focus on parenting in counseling with childhood sexual abuse survivors. Provision of anticipatory guidance regarding commonly experienced stressors at varying stages of the child's development and the mother's stage of recovery and methods for coping with these challenges, would benefit these mothers and promote parenting competence. Specific implications for psychotherapy and directions for future research are discussed.
Abstract Objective Theoretically, exposure to experiences of emotional abuse (EA) and emotional neglect (EN) in childhood may threaten the security of attachment relationships and result in ...maladaptive models of self and self-in-relation to others. The purpose of this study was to explore the extent to which EA and EN treatment by parents contributed uniquely to young adult maladaptive long-term outcome with respect to symptoms of anxiety, depression, and dissociation. The extent to which the relationships between EA and EN and later symptoms were mediated by specific internalized maladaptive interpersonal schemas was also explored. Methods Questionnaires completed by 301 college men and women (52% female) assessed perceptions of experiences of childhood abuse and neglect, exposure to parental alcoholism, current symptoms of psychological distress, and endorsement of maladaptive interpersonal schemas. Results Hierarchical regression analyses revealed that perceptions of childhood EA and EN each continued to exert an influence on later symptoms after controlling for gender, income, parental alcoholism, and other child abuse experiences. Both EA and EN were associated with later symptoms of anxiety and depression and were mediated by schemas of vulnerability to harm, shame, and self-sacrifice. Only EN was related to later symptoms of dissociation; this relationship was mediated by the schemas of shame and vulnerability to harm. Conclusion The findings are discussed from an attachment perspective, focusing on how early interactions with parents contribute to the development of internal working models of self and self-in-relation to others that influence later cognitive schemas and psychological adjustment. Practice implications Although emotional abuse and emotional neglect are the least studied of all forms of child maltreatment, they may be the most prevalent. The current findings suggest that how college students have evaluated and internalized these experiences may be even more important than the events themselves in determining the extent to which these experiences exert a long-term impact. For this reason, early intervention might be particularly important in helping to modify internal working models of the self as worthless, others as abusive, or the world as threatening and dangerous as a result of past abuse experiences. This study underscores the need for counselors to actively elicit and explore experiences of emotional abuse and neglect in clients, in addition to inquiring about other abuse experiences and types of family dysfunction. The results of this study also support existing data suggesting that internalized representational models of self and others are a key mechanism underlying the relationship between emotional maltreatment and later psychopathology. Young's schema questionnaire proved to be quite sensitive in detecting specific maladaptive schemas that mediated later difficulties with depression, anxiety, and dissociation. Targeting these negative schemas in therapy may help to ameliorate such symptoms. The therapeutic relationship provides a particularly effective context for developing more positive models of self and others, as well as providing a context to explore core relationship themes across different relationship contexts (e.g., intimate partner, parent, friend, and work relationships). In particular, if the assessment of the client reveals that dissociative symptoms are present, counselors can acknowledge the adaptive function that this strategy once served, while also addressing potential limitations to over-reliance on this coping strategy.
This study conducted an exploratory factor analysis and initial validation of Ruscio's (2001) parenting attitudes questionnaire, which assessed parenting concerns among child sexual abuse survivors. ...Child sexual abuse survivor mothers (N = 60) reported on their abuse experiences and completed the parenting attitudes questionnaire, the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale, and subscales of the Parenting Stress Index and the Parent-Child Relationship Inventory. Three primary factors emerged: (a) concerns regarding the child's sexuality and safety, (b) boundary disturbances within the child-survivor relationship, and (c) lack of energy for parenting due to recovery issues. Concerns about safety and sexuality and lack of energy for parenting were robust predictors of parenting outcomes. Assessment of such concerns may facilitate discussion of the balance between recovery work and parenting challenges.
The relationships between child psychological maltreatment, interpersonal schemas, and adult relationship aggression were explored in 301 college men and women. Participants completed questionnaires ...assessing a history of child abuse, current maladaptive schemas, adult intimate partner victimization, and perpetration of adult aggression. Child psychological maltreatment predicted both perpetration and revictimization experiences of adult interpersonal aggression even after controlling for other childhood abuse experiences. The schemas of mistrust, self-sacrifice, and emotional inhibition fully mediated the relationship between child psychological maltreatment and adult intimate partner victimization. The schemas of mistrust, entitlement, emotional inhibition, and insufficient self-control partially mediated the relationship between child psychological maltreatment and one's own perpetration of aggression. Implications for intervening with young adults at risk for relationship aggression are discussed.
Although the long-term effects of cumulative childhood maltreatment (CCM) include a variety of adverse consequences, many individuals are resilient following such experiences. This study explored the ...role of social support from family and friends in buffering long-term outcome following CCM, examining both main and moderating effects. Participants included 344 college aged men and women. Findings revealed strong promotive (main) effects of social support from family and friends that were associated with a reduction in symptoms of depression/anxiety and anger/hostility, regardless of the severity of abuse experienced. Support generally acted as a buffer (moderator) against negative outcomes for individuals with lower, and not higher, levels of CCM. The role of family support in moderating outcome was complex, particularly with respect to women’s later dating victimization; here family support functioned as a protective factor at low CCM, but as a vulnerability factor at high CCM.
The dilemma of the wounded healer Zerubavel, Noga; Wright, Margaret O'Dougherty
Psychotherapy (Chicago, Ill.),
12/2012, Volume:
49, Issue:
4
Journal Article
Peer reviewed
The wounded healer is an archetype that suggests that a healer's own wounds can carry curative power for clients. This article reviews past research regarding the construct of the wounded healer. The ...unique benefits that a psychotherapist's personal struggles might have on work with clients are explored, as well as the potential vulnerability of some wounded healers with respect to stability of recovery, difficulty managing countertransference, compassion fatigue, and/or professional impairment. The review also explores psychologists' perceptions of and responses to wounded healers and examines factors relating to social stigma and self-stigma that may influence wounded healers' comfort in disclosing their wounds. We propose that the relative absence of dialogue in the field regarding wounded healers encourages secrecy and shame among the wounded, thereby preventing access to support and guidance and discouraging timely intervention when needed. We explore the complexities of navigating disclosure of wounds, given the atmosphere of silence and stigma. We suggest that the mental health field move toward an approach of greater openness and support regarding the wounded healer, and provide recommendations for cultivating the safety necessary to promote resilience and posttraumatic growth.
Until recently there has been limited attention paid to the long-term consequences of childhood emotional abuse (also known as psychological abuse), in contrast to the significant attention paid to ...the long-term effects of childhood physical or sexual abuse (Barnett, Miller-Perrin, &Perrin, 2005: Binggeli, Heart, & Brassard, 2001). In part this has been because emotional abuse was not recognized as a distinct form of child maltreatment until quite recently, & there has been considerable difficulty defining & assessing emotional abuse. Unlike physical abuse which results in immediate & observable harm, the immediate consequences of emotionally abusive behavior are more elusive. The actions & behaviors that compromise emotional abuse (humiliating, demeaning, threatening language or behavior, denial of affection, or isolating a child) are not uncommon occurrences in family life, & it has been difficult to determine the threshold for considering a particular act abusive. Many parents, if not most, have acknowledged criticizing, ignoring, or being unsupportive of their child on a given occasion (Barnett et al., 2005). So, in the emotional abuse area in particular, it has been hard to distinguish among less than adequate parenting, parenting mistakes, & emotionally abusive behavior. This has made it difficult for child protection workers, therapists, & other child-care providers to accurately assess if the emotional abuse involves a repeated pattern of parent-child interaction, or if the incident has been severe. Adapted from the source document. COPIES ARE AVAILABLE FROM: HAWORTH DOCUMENT DELIVERY CENTER, The Haworth Press, Inc., 10 Alice Street, Binghamton, NY 13904-1580
Resolution of the trauma of childhood sexual abuse (CSA), and the current adjustment of 60 adult female CSA survivors were explored through qualitative and quantitative analyses of their coping ...strategies, perceived benefits, and meaning-making attempts. While the majority of the women (87%) perceived at least some benefit resulting from coping with the CSA experience, many (29%) found it impossible to make any meaning of their trauma. Specific benefits that were associated with various aspects of positive adjustment (marital satisfaction, better physical health, less isolation) included improved relationships with others, religious or spiritual growth, and improved parenting skills. Some perceived benefits were actually associated with a negative outcome. Increased knowledge of sexual abuse was associated with more isolation and lower marital satisfaction. When positive meaning could be derived from the coping process, the women reported less isolation. Avoidant coping was strongly associated with more depressive symptoms and poorer resolution of abuse issues. Results highlight the importance of considering coping strategies and cognitive restructuring efforts in designing therapeutic interventions with this population. Adapted from the source document.
This online study explored gender differences in affective reactions to sexual refusal during hookups and whether state or trait measures were the best predictors of verbal coercion. The Midwestern ...U.S. undergraduate sample included 220 men and 50 women previously in situations where they wanted more sexual contact than their heterosexual partner desired. Women reported stronger negative responses on several affect variables, suggesting that such refusals might have resulted in significant expectancy violations. Men reported more experience in handling refusals, consistent with traditional sexual scripts. Logistic regression analyses revealed that dominant men were more likely to coerce when angry or confused, whereas hostile women were more likely to coerce when feeling rejected. The results have important implications for sexual coercion prevention efforts.
