A sequel to his frequently citedCost and Production Functions(1953), this book offers a unified, comprehensive treatment of these functions which underlie the economic theory of production.
The ...approach is axiomatic for a definition of technology, by mappings of input vectors into subsets of output vectors that represent the unconstrained technical possibilities of production. To provide a completely general means of characterizing a technology, an alternative to the production function, called the Distance Function, is introduced.
The duality between cost function and production function is developed by introducing a cost correspondence, showing that these two functions are given in terms of each other by dual minimum problems.
The special class of production structures called Homothetic is given more general definition and extended to technologies with multiple outputs.
Originally published in 1971.
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'Ruminobacter amylophilus, Fibrobacter succinogenes and Enterococcus faecium' have characteristics that are similar to those of plant growth-promoting bacteria and can be used to promote plant ...development and reduce production costs. These bacteria were isolated from fistulated ruminants and are gram-negative, anaerobic or facultative anaerobic. These bacteria are frequently used to increase animal productivity through the production of many enzymes responsible for the carbon cycle and the release of other nutrients by organic matter decomposition. The bacteria 'R. amylophilus, F. succinogenes and E. faecium' have growth promotion abilities, such as phosphorus solubilization, nitrogen promotion, and indole acetic acid and siderophore production. Tests were performed under greenhouse conditions with soybean and maize crops with five treatments and six replications. The first treatment was the control (without inoculant); the other treatments included each species of bacteria, and there was a treatment with a mixture (mix) of the three bacteria. 'F. succinogenes' increased the root dry mass of maize by 21.4%, as well as the nitrogen and phosphorus contents, compared to the control. 'R. amylophilus and E. faecium' decreased the phosphorus concentration in shoots of maize, and R. amylophilus increased the soil biomass carbon by 76.39% compared to the mix under maize cultivation, while E. faecium decreased the soil biomass carbon by 56.78% compared to the mix under soybean cultivation. The present study verified that 'Ruminobacter amylophilus, Fibrobacter succinogenes and Enterococcus faecium' presented plant growth-related abilities and could be used to improve plant development, reducing the necessity of chemical fertilizers.
The semiconductor industry is one of very few industries to have a standard for management accounting, and this concerns a method for calculating the cost of ownership (COO). This research ...investigates the history of the development of the COO standard, starting from the late 1980s and stretching to the mid-1990s, and explores the circumstances under which this development occurred. We find that the development and revision activities for COO built on complementary conditions, such as industry organizations, networks of professionals, and standard-setting procedures, which had been established for cooperation in research and development and for the development of technical standards. We suggest that these factors may explain the absence of standards in management accounting in many other settings.
Background Leptospirosis, a prevalent zoonotic disease with One Health priority and a disease of poverty, lacks global economic burden estimates. This study aims to determine the global, regional, ...and country-level cost of leptospirosis due to loss of productivity. Methodology/principal findings The cost of leptospirosis due to loss of productivity (referred to as productivity cost hereafter) was estimated by converting the disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) lost due to leptospirosis to a monetary value using the per capita gross domestic product (GDP). The country-specific DALYs lost were obtained from the global burden of leptospirosis study published previously. Non-health GDP per capita (GDP- per capita health expenditure) was used for the cost conversion of DALYs. Country-specific GDP and health expenditure data were obtained from the World Bank data repositories. Estimates were done using both nominal and international dollars. The estimated global productivity cost of leptospirosis in 2019 was Int$ 29.3 billion, with low and high estimates ranging from Int$ 11.6 billion to 52.3 billion. China (Int$ 4.8 billion), India (Int$ 4.6 billion), Indonesia (Int$ 2.8 billion), Sri Lanka (Int$ 2.1 billion), and the United States (Int$ 1.3 billion) had the highest productivity cost due to leptospirosis. Eight out of 10 countries with the highest burden were in the Asia-Pacific region. In addition, lower-middle-income countries had an annual productivity cost of Int$ 13.8 billion, indicating that the disease is poverty-related. Conclusion Although significant, the cost estimate due to loss of productivity is merely a fraction of the overall economic burden of this disease, which also includes other direct, indirect, and intangible costs. The existing partial estimates of the different components of economic cost suggest a profound economic burden that demands the inclusion of leptospirosis in the global health agenda for comprehensive disease control and prevention efforts, including vaccine development.
Sao Miguel Arcanjo municipality (23 degrees 31 'S, 47 degrees 35' O and average altitude of 660 m) is part of one of the three main grape productive regions of Sao Paulo state, Brazil. The 'Rubi' ...grapes (Vitis vinifera) production constraint in that region is to achieve the variety characteristic coloration, which affects commercialization. The color of the berry grapes is due to the existence of anthocyanins and their accumulation seems to be at least in part regulated by abscisic acid. Therefore, exogenous applications of this regulator may increase the anthocyanins concentration in the grapes' skin. The aim of this paper is to evaluate the economic feasibility of abscisic acid application for treatment of the 'Rubi' grapes color uniformization and the impact of this application in the production cost. Production costs were calculated for the abscisic acid treated grapes and the non-treated grapes for a 'Rubi' grapes variety in the sixth year of production and recommended abscisic acid concentration for the region (400 mg L-1 at the beginning of the maturation + 200 mg L-1 at 25 days after first application). The abscisic acid was applied on the berry bunches in the morning using a backpack sprayer that provided full and uniform coverage. Economic feasibility was determined by the increment in the sale price of the final product due to the berries' quality achieved with the treatment. The cost components measured were: production cost, variable and fixed cost quota, effective operational cost, total operational cost, operational profit and profitability index. Technical coefficients input prices, machinery and implements compose the production cost and were surveyed at the property where the experiment was performed. The cost structure is the Total Operating Cost to which social charges, machinery depreciation, interest rate and depreciation of a one-hectare area with a lifespan of 20 years were added. Prices paid to producers in the same period were collected from CEAGESP database for the profitability analysis. The Total Operating Cost for grape's production with abscisic acid treatment was 26.12 % superior to the one of the grapes produced without the treatment, thus adding a US$ 0.15 increment in the paid price per kilogram of the final product. Therefore, this experiment has shown that abscisic acid application is a profitable investment that adds value to the final product cultivated in low thermal amplitude regions where the grapes cannot achieve the variety's characteristic coloration.
•A multiproduct scheduling using a combined optimisation and constraint programming (CP) approach is proposed.•A CP model describing the subprocesses and production rules is developed.•The batch ...scheduling problem is solved in an optimal manner.•Constraints consider the efficiencies/costs of the machines available.•Results on some scenarios corresponding to the dairy production plant are provided.
This paper presents the optimal batch scheduling of a multi-product dairy process using an approach that combines optimization and constraint programming techniques. A suitable model describing the subprocesses and production rules is developed allowing to obtain scheduling constraints relating the production process and the machines available together with their relative efficiencies. After the scheduling problem has been formulated, the batch scheduling of a real powder milk/yogurt process is obtained in an optimal manner using the proposed approach with the objective of meeting customers’ deadlines considering the efficiencies/costs of available alternative machines. Results using real consumer orders on some representative scenarios corresponding to the dairy production plant used as a case study are provided. This application shows a formulation closer to the engineering problem description thanks to the constraint-based language that facilitates the adaptation of the optimization objectives and constraints to real applications.
The Brazilian Savannah is an important production center of grains despite the presence of low fertility soils. In this agricultural scenario, the delineation of management zones for the application ...of lime and fertilizer seems to be promising for a high potential for success and may result in the reduction in production cost with an increase in the yield. The objective of this work was to evaluate the spatial and temporal variations in soybean yield in the Brazilian Savannah involving the delineation of management zones based on the apparent soil electrical conductivity (ECa). In an agricultural field in the Brazilian Savannah, 160 sampling points were taken as the references for the mapping of soybean yield in the crop seasons of 2011/2012, 2012/2013, and 2013/2014. In 2012/2013 and 2013/2014, the soil fertility was managed according to the classes set on the basis of measurement of ECa in 2012. The fertilizers were prescribed on the basis of soil sampling in each class. The class management resulted in an increase in the yield of each area. Over the three years of study, 1.2% of the area reported an unstable yield (with a coefficient of variation greater than 30). This low inconsistency may be attributed to the prediction error (the difference between predicted yield values and actual values) in non-sampled sites. The regulation of soil fertility using the management zones based on the apparent soil electrical conductivity is likely to reduce the spatial variability of the yield in the study area.
From the adoption of the shipping container to coordinated trade liberalization, reductions in trade costs have propelled modern globalization. In this paper, we analyse the application of blockchain ...to reduce the trade costs of producing and coordinating trusted information along supply chains. Consumers, producers, and governments increasingly demand information about the quality, characteristics, and provenance of traded goods. Partially due to the risks of error and fraud, this information is costly to produce and to maintain between dispersed parties. Recent efforts have sought to overcome these costs-such as paperless trade agendas-through the application of new technologies. Our focus is on how blockchain technology can form a new decentralized economic infrastructure for supply chains by governing decentralized dynamic ledgers of information about goods as they move. We outline the potential economic consequences of blockchain supply chains before examining policy. Effective adoption faces a range of policy challenges including regulatory recognition and interoperability across jurisdictions. We propose a high-level policy forum in the Asia-Pacific region to coordinate issues such as open standards and regulatory compatibility.
Abstract
Background:
Animal diseases that are endemic like tsetse transmitted trypanosomosis cause the continuous expenditure of financial resources of livestock farmers and loss of productivity of ...livestock. Estimating the cost of controlling animal trypanosomosis can provide evidence for priority setting and targeting cost-effective control strategies.
Methodology:
A cross-sectional survey to estimate the economic cost of bovine trypanosomosis was conducted in cattle-keeping communities living around Murchision falls National Park, in Buliisa district Uganda. Data was collected on herd structure, the cost of treatment and control, prevalence of morbidity and mortality rates due to trypanosomosis, and salvage sales losses in cattle herds in the last year.
Results:
In this study, 55.4% (n = 87) of the households reported their cattle had been affected by trypanosomosis during the previous last year. There was a high economic cost of trypanosomosis (USD 653) per household in cattle-keeping communities in Buliisa district of which 83% and 9% were due to mortality and milk loss respectively/ High mortality loss was due to low investment in treatment. The study showed that prophylactic treatment 3 times a year of the whole herd of cattle using Samorin ® (Isometamidium chloride) at a cost of USD 110 could drastically reduce cattle mortality loss due to trypanosomosis due to trypanosomosis with a return on investment of USD 540 annually per herd. This could be coupled with strategic restricted insecticide spraying of cattle with deltamethrin products.
Conclusion:
The results show a high economic cost of trypanosomosis in cattle-keeping communities in Buliisa district, with cattle mortality contributing the largest proportion of the economic cost. The high mortality loss was due to low investment in treatment of sick cattle.
This reprint examines regulatory, pricing and reimbursement issues related to the market access and uptake of off-patent biologics, biosimilars, next-generation biologics and competing innovative ...medicines in European countries.
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