This study models a multi‐player environment consisting of a grid operator responsible for meeting electricity demands, a photovoltaic (PV) manufacturer, customers who might install (solar) PV ...systems, and a regulator who must set an optimal feed‐in tariff (FIT). The grid operator must meet exogenous electricity demand and also buy back all electricity (produced by PV systems) at the FIT set by the regulator. Customers decide whether or not to invest in a PV system. Adoption rates affect the manufacturer and operator by (respectively) establishing the demand for PV systems and determining how much PV electricity is fed into the grid. The PV manufacturer’s decision variable is the sales price per PV unit. The decisions of all players in the model are intertwined in a way that clearly affects their respective welfare. We demonstrate in particular how technology and market characteristics—including PV manufacturing cost and market competition—change the optimal decisions of players and thereby influence the effectiveness of FITs, the number of PV adopters, and the cost to provide the social benefit of on‐demand electricity. Our findings confirm the importance of considering technology manufacturers when devising schemes to incentivize the adoption of PV systems.
This paper provides an empirical evaluation of feed-in tariff and renewable portfolio standard policies applied to onshore wind power in the EU-28 over the period 2000–2014. It allows policy-makers ...to know: a) if these policies have actually increased onshore wind generation capacity compared to a scenario without regulatory supports, b) which policy led to most onshore wind generation capacity, c) the impact of policy design elements on onshore wind generation capacity. The results suggest that only feed-in tariff policies and their main policy design elements (contract duration and tariff price) have significant impacts in terms of installed capacity. The establishment of a more risk-free framework would be necessary in renewable portfolio standard policies in order to increase investor confidence.
•An empirical evaluation of FIT and RPS in onshore wind energy is developed in the EU-28.•FIT polices have significant impacts in terms of onshore wind installed capacity.•Contract duration and tariffs are essential concepts in successful FIT policies.•An exhaustive revision of the design elements in RPS is required in this technology.
•Buyers’ willingness to pay for imported vaccines affects the implementation of tariff policies.•Imported vaccine manufacturer can reduce the cold chain transportation level to relieve tariff ...pressure.•In the long term, import vaccine manufacturers bear tariffs in favor of domestic vaccine manufacturers.•The tariffs borne by buyers maximizes social welfare.
People can choose to be vaccinated to prevent diseases at their own expense. There are specific vaccines for many diseases. Meanwhile, for a particular disease, there might be multiple vaccines available to choose from. Based on that, we constructed a stylized vaccine supply chain (VSC) model for the market where domestic vaccines and imported vaccines co-exist. We explored the effect of government tariff policies on the game behaviors between a domestic vaccine manufacturer (DVM) and an imported vaccine manufacturer (IVM). This paper analyzes the short-term game and long-term evolutionary game behaviors of the VSC from both the entirely rational and boundedly rational perspectives. The analysis considers three tariff policies: no tariffs on imported vaccines, tariffs borne by the IVM, and tariffs borne by buyers. Results suggest that in the short-term game, buyers bearing tariffs on imported vaccines can enable the DVM to gain the most market share. The buyers willingness-to-pay is relatively low for imported vaccines, which makes the DVM more profitable. Imposing tariffs on imported vaccines can reduce the IVMs profit margin. However, the IVM still prefers to bear the tariffs itself. Lowering the cold chain transportation level and reducing the retail price of imported vaccines are both feasible solutions for the IVM to relieve the pressure from tariffs. It is also feasible for the IVM to increase the retail price of imported vaccines when the buyers willingness to pay for imported vaccines is high. In long-term evolutionary game, the DVM can gain more room for price adjustment if the IVM bears tariffs. The IVM can obtain greater cost tolerance if buyers bear tariffs. However, from governments prospective, tariffs borne by buyers is the optimal option, which makes the VSC stable and controllable.
This study proposes two incentive policies consisting of the feed-in tariff and carbon emission trading. The effects of the policies on the performance (economic, energy, and environmental) of CCHP ...systems running in office and residential buildings under five different operation strategies (following the electric load (FEL), following the thermal load (FTL), two types of following the hybrid electric-thermal load (FHL1 and FHL2), and following the maximum efficiency of power generation unit) were compared and analyzed. The results showed that the best operation strategies were changed before and after the above two incentive policies carrying out. When the policies are not carried out, the FEL and FHL1 strategies are most suitable for the CCHP system in office and residential buildings. Since the policies implement, the FHL2 and FTL strategies are the best. Incentive policies have a greater positive impact on the CCHP system in residential building than that in office. For promoting the development of the CCHP system in residential buildings, the incentive coefficient can be set higher than that in office buildings. Finally, sensitivity analysis was conducted for CCHP systems and the results were presented in terms of feed-in tariff, incentive coefficient, and gas price.
•The coupling of feed in tariff and carbon emission trading policy was analyzed.•The effect of policies on system in office and residential buildings were analyzed.•Policies have a greater impact on the system in residential building than in office.•The cost of CCHP system under FTL is most sensitive to the incentive coefficient.•A high incentive coefficient brings excess carbon emission in residential buildings.
The laws of the evolution of the British imperial system, which was the largest and one of the most complex state entities in the world history, seem to be an important object of study that requires ...a comprehensive analysis, taking into account the diversity of factors that caused it. Despite the victory won in the First World War, the British political leadership at the turn of the 1910s -1920s had to face a number of serious challenges affecting various segments of the imperial organization and manifesting themselves in the fields of economics, politics and ideology. In the economic sphere, the main negative trend was the relative economic weakening of Great Britain caused by the consequences of the war, as well as the intensified international economic competition. In addition, it was accompanied by a noticeable increase in the economic independence of various elements of the empire, including both dominions and some directly colonial possessions, primarily India. The subject of this article is the main features of the development of the economic situation in the UK in the interwar period in the context of their role in the formation of the colonial strategy of the British leadership. Special attention is paid to attempts to introduce a single customs tariff for the metropolis and dominions against the background of the transformation of the imperial system into the British Commonwealth.
•A feed in tariff policy ensuring both energy and economic performance was proposed.•The proposed policy is the best choice in all climate zones except the hottest zone.•If improving PER is ...attractive, FTL is the best choice under the proposed policy.•The effect of policy improving performance reduces from cold zone to hot zone.
In this paper, a feed-in tariff policy which can contribute to both energy and economic performance of a CCHP system is proposed. By applying this feed-in tariff policy, the impact on design optimization (power generation unit capacity and operation strategy) and system performance (economic, energy, and matching performance) of a hospital CCHP system used in different climate zones are evaluated and analyzed. In policy one (Pol1), no electricity is allowed to be sold. In policy two (Pol2), the electricity selling price is constant. In policy three (Pol3), the selling price of electricity is proportional to the PER (Primary Energy consumption Ratio) of the system when the PER is not lower than a critical value. Otherwise, the selling price is zero. The results show that Pol3 can ensure both energy and economic performances of CCHP system. The effect of feed-in tariff policy to improve the performance of CCHP system reduces gradually from the cold zone to the hot zone. Multi-criteria decision making results show that Pol3 with reasonable parameters is the best choice in all climate zones except for the hottest zone in this study. When improving PER is attractive, following thermal load operation strategy is the best choice under Pol3. In the hottest zone of this study, little excess electricity would be produced and sold to the grid. Feed-in tariff policy has little help to improve the economic and energy performance in this zone.
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