•We review concepts related to the explainability of AI methods (XAI).•We comprehensive analyze the XAI literature organized in two taxonomies.•We identify future research directions of the XAI ...field.•We discuss potential implications of XAI and privacy in data fusion contexts.•We identify Responsible AI as a concept promoting XAI and other AI principles in practical settings.
In the last few years, Artificial Intelligence (AI) has achieved a notable momentum that, if harnessed appropriately, may deliver the best of expectations over many application sectors across the field. For this to occur shortly in Machine Learning, the entire community stands in front of the barrier of explainability, an inherent problem of the latest techniques brought by sub-symbolism (e.g. ensembles or Deep Neural Networks) that were not present in the last hype of AI (namely, expert systems and rule based models). Paradigms underlying this problem fall within the so-called eXplainable AI (XAI) field, which is widely acknowledged as a crucial feature for the practical deployment of AI models. The overview presented in this article examines the existing literature and contributions already done in the field of XAI, including a prospect toward what is yet to be reached. For this purpose we summarize previous efforts made to define explainability in Machine Learning, establishing a novel definition of explainable Machine Learning that covers such prior conceptual propositions with a major focus on the audience for which the explainability is sought. Departing from this definition, we propose and discuss about a taxonomy of recent contributions related to the explainability of different Machine Learning models, including those aimed at explaining Deep Learning methods for which a second dedicated taxonomy is built and examined in detail. This critical literature analysis serves as the motivating background for a series of challenges faced by XAI, such as the interesting crossroads of data fusion and explainability. Our prospects lead toward the concept of Responsible Artificial Intelligence, namely, a methodology for the large-scale implementation of AI methods in real organizations with fairness, model explainability and accountability at its core. Our ultimate goal is to provide newcomers to the field of XAI with a thorough taxonomy that can serve as reference material in order to stimulate future research advances, but also to encourage experts and professionals from other disciplines to embrace the benefits of AI in their activity sectors, without any prior bias for its lack of interpretability.
Current developments in Artificial Intelligence (AI) led to a resurgence of Explainable AI (XAI). New methods are being researched to obtain information from AI systems in order to generate ...explanations for their output. However, there is an overall lack of valid and reliable evaluations of the effects on users' experience of, and behavior in response to explanations. New XAI methods are often based on an intuitive notion what an effective explanation should be. Rule- and example-based contrastive explanations are two exemplary explanation styles. In this study we evaluate the effects of these two explanation styles on system understanding, persuasive power and task performance in the context of decision support in diabetes self-management. Furthermore, we provide three sets of recommendations based on our experience designing this evaluation to help improve future evaluations. Our results show that rule-based explanations have a small positive effect on system understanding, whereas both rule- and example-based explanations seem to persuade users in following the advice even when incorrect. Neither explanation improves task performance compared to no explanation. This can be explained by the fact that both explanation styles only provide details relevant for a single decision, not the underlying rational or causality. These results show the importance of user evaluations in assessing the current assumptions and intuitions on effective explanations.
On 12 October, the White House published its report on the future of artificial intelligence (AI) - a product of four workshops held between May and July 2016 in Seattle, Pittsburgh, Washington DC ...and New York City (see go.nature.com/2dx8rv6).
•Provide insights into AI-Human communication.•Define levels of explanation with identified techniques that align with AI cognitive processes.•Discuss insights into Broad eXplainable Artificial ...Intelligence (Broad-XAI).•Align AI explanation to human communication.
Over the last few years there has been rapid research growth into eXplainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI) and the closely aligned Interpretable Machine Learning (IML). Drivers for this growth include recent legislative changes and increased investments by industry and governments, along with increased concern from the general public. People are affected by autonomous decisions every day and the public need to understand the decision-making process to accept the outcomes. However, the vast majority of the applications of XAI/IML are focused on providing low-level ‘narrow’ explanations of how an individual decision was reached based on a particular datum. While important, these explanations rarely provide insights into an agent's: beliefs and motivations; hypotheses of other (human, animal or AI) agents' intentions; interpretation of external cultural expectations; or, processes used to generate its own explanation. Yet all of these factors, we propose, are essential to providing the explanatory depth that people require to accept and trust the AI's decision-making. This paper aims to define levels of explanation and describe how they can be integrated to create a human-aligned conversational explanation system. In so doing, this paper will survey current approaches and discuss the integration of different technologies to achieve these levels with Broad eXplainable Artificial Intelligence (Broad-XAI), and thereby move towards high-level ‘strong’ explanations.
The hidden costs of artificial intelligence, from natural
resources and labor to privacy and freedom What happens
when artificial intelligence saturates political life and depletes
the planet? How is ...AI shaping our understanding of ourselves and
our societies? In this book Kate Crawford reveals how this
planetary network is fueling a shift toward undemocratic governance
and increased inequality. Drawing on more than a decade of
research, award-winning science, and technology, Crawford reveals
how AI is a technology of extraction: from the energy and minerals
needed to build and sustain its infrastructure, to the exploited
workers behind "automated" services, to the data AI collects from
us. Rather than taking a narrow focus on code and algorithms,
Crawford offers us a political and a material perspective on what
it takes to make artificial intelligence and where it goes wrong.
While technical systems present a veneer of objectivity, they are
always systems of power. This is an urgent account of what is at
stake as technology companies use artificial intelligence to
reshape the world.
In recent years, deep artificial neural networks (including recurrent ones) have won numerous contests in pattern recognition and machine learning. This historical survey compactly summarizes ...relevant work, much of it from the previous millennium. Shallow and Deep Learners are distinguished by the depth of their credit assignment paths, which are chains of possibly learnable, causal links between actions and effects. I review deep supervised learning (also recapitulating the history of backpropagation), unsupervised learning, reinforcement learning & evolutionary computation, and indirect search for short programs encoding deep and large networks.
A large set of the explainable Artificial Intelligence (XAI) literature is emerging on feature relevance techniques to explain a deep neural network (DNN) output or explaining models that ingest ...image source data. However, assessing how XAI techniques can help understand models beyond classification tasks, e.g. for reinforcement learning (RL), has not been extensively studied. We review recent works in the direction to attain Explainable Reinforcement Learning (XRL), a relatively new subfield of Explainable Artificial Intelligence, intended to be used in general public applications, with diverse audiences, requiring ethical, responsible and trustable algorithms. In critical situations where it is essential to justify and explain the agent’s behaviour, better explainability and interpretability of RL models could help gain scientific insight on the inner workings of what is still considered a black box. We evaluate mainly studies directly linking explainability to RL, and split these into two categories according to the way the explanations are generated: transparent algorithms and post-hoc explainability. We also review the most prominent XAI works from the lenses of how they could potentially enlighten the further deployment of the latest advances in RL, in the demanding present and future of everyday problems.
•We review concepts related to the explainability of Deep Reinforcement Learning models.•We provide a comprehensive analysis of the Explainable Reinforcement Learning literature.•We propose a categorization of existing Explainable Reinforcement Learning methods.•We discuss ideas emerging from the literature and provide insights for future work.
Recently, artificial intelligence and machine learning in general have demonstrated remarkable performances in many tasks, from image processing to natural language processing, especially with the ...advent of deep learning (DL). Along with research progress, they have encroached upon many different fields and disciplines. Some of them require high level of accountability and thus transparency, for example, the medical sector. Explanations for machine decisions and predictions are thus needed to justify their reliability. This requires greater interpretability, which often means we need to understand the mechanism underlying the algorithms. Unfortunately, the blackbox nature of the DL is still unresolved, and many machine decisions are still poorly understood. We provide a review on interpretabilities suggested by different research works and categorize them. The different categories show different dimensions in interpretability research, from approaches that provide "obviously" interpretable information to the studies of complex patterns. By applying the same categorization to interpretability in medical research, it is hoped that: 1) clinicians and practitioners can subsequently approach these methods with caution; 2) insight into interpretability will be born with more considerations for medical practices; and 3) initiatives to push forward data-based, mathematically grounded, and technically grounded medical education are encouraged.
Trends in extreme learning machines: A review Huang, Gao; Huang, Guang-Bin; Song, Shiji ...
Neural networks,
January 2015, 2015-Jan, 2015-01-00, 20150101, Volume:
61
Journal Article
Peer reviewed
Extreme learning machine (ELM) has gained increasing interest from various research fields recently. In this review, we aim to report the current state of the theoretical research and practical ...advances on this subject. We first give an overview of ELM from the theoretical perspective, including the interpolation theory, universal approximation capability, and generalization ability. Then we focus on the various improvements made to ELM which further improve its stability, sparsity and accuracy under general or specific conditions. Apart from classification and regression, ELM has recently been extended for clustering, feature selection, representational learning and many other learning tasks. These newly emerging algorithms greatly expand the applications of ELM. From implementation aspect, hardware implementation and parallel computation techniques have substantially sped up the training of ELM, making it feasible for big data processing and real-time reasoning. Due to its remarkable efficiency, simplicity, and impressive generalization performance, ELM have been applied in a variety of domains, such as biomedical engineering, computer vision, system identification, and control and robotics. In this review, we try to provide a comprehensive view of these advances in ELM together with its future perspectives.
PDF
