Criminal Justice: Retribution vs. Restoration presents new answers and unconventional suggestions addressing America's overcrowded prisons and jails, high recidivism rates, and weakened family and ...community relationships with ex-prisoners. This groundbreaking book introduces encouraging, therapeutic approaches to criminal justice that include treatment, rehabilitation, and the direct involvement of the victims, families, and communities. Its holistic, empowering, and strength-based perspective provides insight and suggestions that are valuable for students, social workers, policymakers, and criminal justice professionals.
Les organisations internationales furent marquées dès le XIXe siècle par une évolution importante des modes de règlement des conflits concernant leur personnel, évolution ayant connu des périodes de ...progrès mais également de régression en matière d’indépendance de la justice liée à la question sensible des pouvoirs de leurs organes directeurs. La thèse examine cette évolution à l’aide de la théorie de l’institutionnalisme historique et à travers une typologie des critères d’indépendance. Ainsi, tandis qu’il existait essentiellement quatre types de justice interne pour le personnel et d’autres personnes affectées par leurs activités au XIXe siècle, l’avènement de la Société des Nations en 1919 voit la création du système de justice administrative interne destiné au seul personnel qui dominera le XXe siècle: la procédure de réclamation auprès de comités paritaires consultatifs sans pouvoir contraignant, suivi de la possibilité d’un recours auprès d’une juridiction administrative indépendante. La perte de contrôle des organes directeurs sur cette justice amena cependant les États à se doter durant la seconde moitié du XXe siècle d’un mécanisme leur permettant de demander la réformation des jugements auprès de la Cour internationale de Justice qui en profita au contraire pour finalement consacrer l’indépendance des juridictions administratives internationales et celle des organisations internationales. Le système mixte dans lequel les premiers niveaux de recours de nature administrative dépendaient encore des chefs des administrations disparut au sein des Nations Unies en 2009 avec l’avènement d’un double degré de juridiction indépendant. Par contre, fragmentée et cloisonnée, l’ensemble de la justice interne des Nations Unies reste grevé par des réformes concomitantes quant à la responsabilité des Nations Unies vis-à-vis de tiers, qui, encore en 2017, n’ont pas prévu de contrôle juridictionnel efficace.
Staff conflict resolution mechanisms within international organisations have witnessed a tremendous evolution since the 19th century, evolution which saw progress but also periods of regression in terms of independence of justice mainly due to the sensitive issue of the authority of their governing bodies. The thesis studies this evolution by applying the theory of historical institutionalism and through various criteria used to measure the independence of these mechanisms. While mainly four different systems of justice existed for staff members and others in the 19th century, the establishment of the League of Nations in 1919 was accompanied by the creation of a new type of recourse mechanism solely meant for staff members and which would eventually dominate the 20th century: joint advisory boards with staff participation without binding authority and independent administrative tribunals. The loss of control experienced by the governing bodies over these tribunals also led Members States to establish a new mechanism allowing them to challenge their decisions with the International Court of Justice. But far from assisting them to ascertain their authority, the ICJ would not only confirm the independence of those administrative tribunals but also of the United Nations itself. The joint advisory boards, the last element of the conflict resolution mechanisms which was not yet independent, were finally abolished within the United Nations in 2009 through a justice reform that created a new appeals tribunal. However, fragmented and compartmentalized, the overall justice system within the United Nations still fails in 2017 to address the broader issue of its liability towards all kind of persons and companies, which might have suffered harm from its activities.
