Spontaneous brain activity at rest is highly organized even when the brain is not explicitly engaged in a task. Functional connectivity (FC) in the alpha frequency band (α, 8–12 Hz) during rest is ...associated with improved performance on various cognitive and motor tasks. In this study we explored how FC is associated with visuo-motor skill learning and offline consolidation. We tested two hypotheses by which resting-state FC might achieve its impact on behavior: preparing the brain for an upcoming task or consolidating training gains. Twenty-four healthy participants were assigned to one of two groups: The experimental group (n = 12) performed a computerized mirror-drawing task. The control group (n = 12) performed a similar task but with concordant cursor direction. High-density 156-channel resting-state EEG was recorded before and after learning. Subjects were tested for offline consolidation 24h later. The Experimental group improved during training and showed offline consolidation. Increased α-FC between the left superior parietal cortex and the rest of the brain before training and decreased α-FC in the same region after training predicted learning. Resting-state FC following training did not predict offline consolidation and none of these effects were present in controls. These findings indicate that resting-state alpha-band FC is primarily implicated in providing optimal neural resources for upcoming tasks.
•Learning and offline consolidation of mirror-drawing skills are evaluated.•EEG resting-state predicts learning but not offline consolidation.•Modulations of resting state are apparent at the alpha-band in left parietal areas.•Alpha-band resting-state provides the optimal neural resources for upcoming tasks.
The aim of this systematic review was to provide an update on the contemporary knowledge and scientific development of augmented reality (AR) and virtual reality (VR) in dental medicine, and to ...identify future research needs to accomplish its clinical translation.
A modified PICO-strategy was performed using an electronic (MEDLINE, EMBASE, CENTRAL) plus manual search up to 12/2018 exploring AR/VR in dentistry in the last 5 years. Inclusion criteria were limited to human studies focusing on the clinical application of AR/VR and associated field of interest in dental medicine.
The systematic search identified 315 titles, whereas 87 abstracts and successively 32 full-texts were selected for review, resulting in 16 studies for final inclusion. AR/VR-technologies were predominantly used for educational motor skill training (n = 9 studies), clinical testing of maxillofacial surgical protocols (n = 5), investigation of human anatomy (n = 1), and the treatment of patients with dental phobia (n = 1). Due to the heterogeneity of the included studies, meta-analyses could not be performed.
The overall number of includable studies was low; and scientifically proven recommendations for clinical protocols could not be given at this time. However, AR/VR-applications are of increasing interest and importance in dental under- and postgraduate education offering interactive learning concepts with 24/7-access and objective evaluation. In maxillofacial surgery, AR/VR-technology is a promising tool for complex procedures and can help to deliver predictable and safe therapy outcomes. Future research should focus on establishing technological standards with high data quality and developing approved applications for dental AR/VR-devices for clinical routine.
•AR/VR is of increasing interest in all fields of dental medicine.•AR/VR facilitates a widespread usage in dental education and training.•AR/VR is a promising tool for complex procedures in maxillofacial surgery.
Cognitive neuroscience currently conflates the study of serial responses (e.g., delay match to sample/nonsample,
-back) with the study of sequential operations. In this essay, our goal is to define ...and disentangle the latter, termed
(ACTS). Existing literatures address tasks requiring serial events, including procedural learning of implicit motor responses, statistical learning of predictive relationships, and judgments of attributes. These findings do not describe the behavior and underlying mechanism required to succeed at remembering to evaluate color, then shape; or to multiply, then add. A new literature is needed to characterize these sorts of second-order cognitive demands of studying a sequence of operations. Our second goal is to characterize gaps in knowledge related to ACTS that merit further investigation. In the following sections, we define more precisely what we mean by ACTS and suggest research questions that further investigation would be positioned to address.
Previous research has shown that individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and developmental coordination disorder (DCD) may have overlapping social and motor skill impairments. This study ...compares ASD, DCD, and typically developing (TD) youth on a range of social, praxis and motor skills, and investigates the relationship between these skills in each group. Data were collected on participants aged 8–17 (n = 33 ASD, n = 28 DCD, n = 35 TD). Overall, the clinical groups showed some similar patterns of social and motor impairments but diverged in praxis impairments, cognitive empathy, and Theory of Mind ability. When controlling for both social and motor performance impairments, the ASD group showed significantly lower accuracy on imitation of meaningful gestures and gesture to command, indicating a prominent deficit in these praxis skills in ASD.
Lay Summary
Individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and developmental coordination disorder (DCD) have social and motor skill impairments to varying degrees. This study compares ASD, DCD, and typically developing (TD) youth on a range of social, praxis, and motor skills. ASD and DCD shared similar patterns of gross and fine motor skills, but differed in skills related to making gestures. Specifically, our results also suggest that ASD has a prominent deficit in gesture performance and meaningful imitation compared to TD and DCD groups.
Participation in physical activity benefits brain health and function. Cognitive function generally demonstrates a noticeable effect of physical activity, but much less is known about areas ...responsible for controlling movement, such as primary motor cortex (M1). While more physical activity may support M1 plasticity in older adults, the neural mechanisms underlying this beneficial effect remain poorly understood. Aging is inevitably accompanied by diminished motor performance, and the extent of plasticity may also be less in older adults compared with young. Motor complications with aging may, perhaps unsurprisingly, contribute to reduced physical activity in older adults. While the development of non-invasive brain stimulation techniques have identified that human M1 is a crucial site for learning motor skills and recovery of motor function after injury, a considerable lack of knowledge remains about how physical activity impacts M1 with healthy aging. Reducing impaired neural activity in older adults may have important implications after neurological insult, such as stroke, which is more common with advancing age. Therefore, a better understanding about the effects of physical activity on M1 processes and motor learning in older adults may promote healthy aging, but also allow us to facilitate recovery of motor function after neurological injury. This article will initially provide a brief overview of the neurophysiology of M1 in the context of learning motor skills, with a focus on healthy aging in humans. This information will then be proceeded by a more detailed assessment that focuses on whether physical activity benefits motor function and human M1 processes.
Food foraging is essential for the fitness of animals. Previous studies have suggested that optimal foraging strategies involve a cost–benefit analysis comparing reward versus effort to guide action ...choices. Little is known how prior experience with different actions to obtain rewards may affect subsequent foraging choices. Here, we report a sunflower seed foraging test to investigate how effort and prior actions influence decision‐making in laboratory mice. Sunflower seeds are a natural food favourite for mice, and mice spend effort to peel the hard shells to obtain the seeds. In our test, peeled and unpeeled sunflower seeds were placed at different ends of a Y‐maze. Mice were free to explore the maze and make foraging decisions. Naïve mice were more likely to choose peeled seeds requiring low effort versus unpeeled seeds requiring high effort. Furthermore, mice with prior seed peeling experience significantly reduced preference for peeled seeds during the subsequent Y‐maze foraging test, compared with mice pre‐exposed to peeled seeds only. This experience‐dependent shift in foraging choice was associated with reduced seed peeling time and improved motor skills with practice, and predictable on a trial‐by‐trial basis by a probabilistic decision‐making model with the amount of peeled and unpeeled seeds consumed as inputs. Together, these results suggest that laboratory mice make rational foraging choices based on effort estimation and moreover, prior actions to obtain reward alter effort estimation and decision‐making through motor skill learning. This naturalist behavioural task may be applied to dissect neural mechanisms in adaptive decision‐making during foraging.
Here, we report a sunflower seed foraging test to investigate how effort and prior actions influence decision‐making. Naïve mice are more likely to choose peeled seeds requiring low effort while mice with prior seed peeling experience significantly reduced preference for peeled seeds. These results suggest that mice make rational foraging choices based on effort estimation and prior actions to obtain rewards alter effort estimation and decision‐making through motor skill learning.
The age range of 3−6 years is considered as a critical period in developing and learning fundamental motor skills (FMS). To make the formulation of future FMS guidance programs more targeted, we ...examined gender differences in children’s FMS proficiency using a meta-analysis. Structured electronic databases including PubMed, Scopus and Web of Science were systematically searched using key terms, and the Joanna Briggs Institute (JBI) was used to assess the quality of included literature. Finally, 38 articles (39 studies) met the pre-specified inclusion criteria. The results showed that boys had higher proficiency in total FMS and object control skills than girls (SMD = 0.17 (95% CI 0.03, 0.31), p = 0.02; SMD = 0.48 (95% CI 0.38, 0.58), p < 0.00001), and gender differences in locomotor skill proficiency approached significance, trending in favor of girls (SMD = −0.07 (95 % CI −0.15, 0.01), p = 0.09, I2 = 66%). Meta-regression shows that age is associated with gender differences in object control skills (p < 0.05). In addition, through subgroup analysis, we found that boys’ advantage in object control skills increased with age (3 years: SMD = 0.27 (95% CI 0.00, 0.54), p < 0.00001; 4 years: SMD = 0.58 (95% CI 0.38, 0.77), p < 0.00001; 5 years: SMD = 0.59 (95% CI 0.31, 0.88), p < 0.00001; 6 years: SMD = 0.81 (95% CI 0.61, 1.01), p < 0.00001). In this meta-analysis, we found gender differences in FMS levels in children aged 3−6 years. Notably, gender differences in skill proficiency in object control were influenced by age. We recommend focusing on and developing girls’ object control skills starting at age 3.
Contemporary theorizing on the complementary nature of perception and action in expert performance has led to different emphases in the study of movement coordination and gaze behavior. On the one ...hand, coordination research has examined the role of variability in movement control, evidencing that variability facilitates individualized adaptations during both learning and performance. On the other hand, and at odds with this principle, the majority of gaze behavior studies have tended to average data over participants and trials, proposing the importance of universal 'optimal' gaze patterns in a given task, for all performers, irrespective of stage of learning. In this article, we discuss new lines of inquiry with the aim of reconciling these two distinct approaches. We consider the role of inter- and intra-individual variability in gaze behaviors and suggest directions for future research.
•Children with Down Syndrome show motor problems.•The bottom-up approach provides a snapshot of the current motor competence.•The top-down approach reflects a long-term impression of the child's ...motor skills.•There are medium correlations between top-down and bottom-up approach.•Therapies and interventions have to address the child's unique motor profile.
of previous studies show a large interindividual variability with regard to motor skills and motor abilities in children with Down Syndrome (DS). In order to provide detailed information for intervention, adequate assessment methods seem to be necessary to address the child's unique motor profile. Typically, children are either examined using a bottom-up (performance-based assessment of motor skills) or a top-down approach (e.g. client-report measure), but rarely both approaches. The aim of this study was to examine the relationship between standardized performance-based, and teacher-report measures of children's motor performance. The performance- and process-based assessment Test of Gross Motor Development (TGMD-2), and the teacher-based Movement Assessment Battery – Checklist (MABC-C) for young children were used to assess the motor performance of 18 children with DS (11 boys, 7 girls) aged 7–11 years (M=9.06, SD=0.96) and an age- and sex-matched sample of typically developing (TD) 18 children (11 boys, 7 girls; M=8.99, SD=0.93). TD children achieve consistently better results compared to children with DS, both in the TGMD-2 and MABC-C, which differ significantly in most cases. When gender differences were examined for the TGMD-2 scores, boys with DS were better performers of the run, gallop, leap, and catch, as well as the locomotor and object-control skill sum scores, whereas girls of the TD group were more proficient in these areas. TD children achieve significantly better results in 21 out of 28 items of Section A+B of the MABC-C, compared to the children with DS; whereas there are no significant differences for Section C (non-motor factors). Our results show more significant relationships between TGMD-2 and MABC-C sub- and overall scores for the TD sample compared to the children with DS. The correlations range between r=−.21 and −.65 for TD children and between r=−.15 and −.65 for the children with DS. The correlations between both approaches show that the combination of both methods could be useful in getting a more detailed picture of the child's individual motor profile in order to create tailor-made therapies and interventions, both for children with DS and TD children.
In recent years the association between video games, cognition, and the brain has been actively investigated. However, it is still unclear how individual predispositions, such as brain structure ...characteristics, play a role in the process of acquiring new skills, such as video games. The aim of this preliminary study was to investigate whether acquisition of cognitive-motor skills from the real-time strategy video game (StarCraft II) is associated with pre-training measures of brain white matter integrity. Results show that higher white matter integrity in regions (anterior limb of internal capsule, cingulum/hippocampus) and tracts (inferior longitudinal fasciculus) related with motoric functions, set shifting and visual decision making was associated with better Star Craft II performance. The presented findings inline with previous results and suggest that structural brain predispositions of individuals are related to the video game skill acquisition. Our study highlights the importance of neuroimaging studies that focus on white matter in predicting the outcomes of intervention studies and has implications for understanding the neural basis of the skill learning process.
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