As a much-enriched supplement to the previous review paper entitled the “Effective work functions for ionic and electronic emissions from mono- and polycrystalline surfaces” Prog. Surf. Sci. 83 ...(2008) 1–165, the present monograph summarizes a comprehensive and up-to-date database in Table 1, which includes more than ten thousands of experimental and theoretical data accumulated mainly during the last half century on the work functions (ϕ+, ϕe and ϕ−) effective for positive-ionic, electronic and negative-ionic emissions from mono- and polycrystalline surfaces of 88 kinds of chemical elements (1H–99Es), and also which includes the main experimental condition and method employed for each sample specimen (bulk or film) together with 490 footnotes. From the above database originating from 4461 references published to date in the fields of both physics and chemistry, the most probable values of ϕ+, ϕe and ϕ− for substantially clean surfaces are statistically estimated for about 600 surface species of mono- and polycrystals. The values recommended for ϕe together with ϕ+ and ϕ− in Table 2 are much more abundant in both surface species and data amount, and also they may be more reliable and convenient than those in popular handbooks and reviews consulted widely still today by great many workers, because the latter is based on less-plentiful data on ϕe published generally before ∼1980 and also because it covers no value recommended for ϕ+ and ϕ−. Consequently, Table 1 may be more advantageous as the latest and most abundant database on work functions (especially ϕe) for quickly referring to a variety of data obtained under specified conditions. Comparison of the most probable values of ϕe recommended for each surface species between this article and other literatures listed in Tables 2 and 3 indicates that consideration of the recent work function data accumulated particularly during the last ∼40 years is very important for correct analysis of these surface phenomena or processes concerned with either work function or its changes. On the basis of our simple model about the work function of polycrystal consisting of a number of patchy faces (1–i) having each a fractional area (Fi) and a local work function (ϕi), its values of both ϕ+ and ϕe are theoretically calculated and also critically compared with a plenty of experimental data. In addition, the “polycrystalline thermionic work function contrast” (Δϕ∗≡ϕ+−ϕe) well-known as the thermionic peculiarity inherent in every polycrystal is carefully analyzed as a function of the degree of monocrystallization (δm) corresponding to the largest (Fm) among Fi’s (Tables 4–6 and Fig. 1), thereby yielding the conclusions as follows: (1) Δϕ∗≃ const (>0) holds for the generally called “polycrystalline” surfaces (usually δm < 50%), (2) Δϕ∗ ranges from ∼0.3 eV (Pt) to 0.7 eV (Nb) depending upon the polycrystalline surface species, (3) in the case of the “submonocrystal” (50 <δm < 100%) tentatively named here, Δϕ∗ decreases parabolically down to zero as δm increases from ∼50% up to 100% (monocrystal), (4) Δϕ∗=0.0eV applies to a clean and smooth monocrystalline surface (δm≈ 100%) alone, (5) regarding negative ion emission, on the other hand, our theoretical prediction of Δϕ∗∗≡ϕ−−ϕe=0.0eV is experimentally verified to hold for any surface species under any surface conditions (Table 7), (6) every polycrystal (usually, δm < 50%) may be concluded in general to have a unique value of ϕe characteristic of its species with little dependence upon δm, (7) this conclusion affords us first a sound basis for supporting theoretically the experimental fact (Table 2) that every species of polycrystal has a nearly constant value of ϕe as well as ϕ+ (usually within the uncertainty of ±0.1 eV) depending little upon the difference in the surface components (Fi and ϕi) among specimens so long as δm < 50%, (8) on the contrary to polycrystal (δm < 50%), any submonocrystal (50 <δm < 100%) has such an anomaly that it does not possess the unique value of work function characteristic of the surface species itself, because its ϕe as well as ϕ+ changes considerably depending upon δm, (9) consequently, submonocrystal must be taken as another type (category) different from both poly- and monocrystals, (10) in this way, δm acts as the key factor mainly governing the work functions in the different mode between poly- and submonocrystals with δm lower and higher than the “critical point” of 50%, respectively, (11) on the contrary to δm, ϕm belonging to δm has a differential effect on both ϕ+ and ϕe, but their values remain nearly constant so long as δm < 50% and, thus interestingly, (12) the complicate governance of ϕ+ and ϕe by both δm and ϕm and also the anomaly of submonocrystal (cf. (8) above) observed first by our theoretical analysis may be considered as a new contribution to the work function studies developed to date. Together with brief comments and experimental conditions, typical data on ϕe and/or ϕ+ are summarized from the various aspects of (1) examination of the work function dependence upon the surface atom density of low-Miller-index monocrystals of typical metals such as Al, Ni, W and Re (Table 8), (2) demonstration of the above dependence usually called the “anisotropic work function dependence sequences” of both ϕe(110) >ϕe(100) >ϕe(111) and ϕ+(110) >ϕ+(100) >ϕ+(111) for various bcc-metals (e.g., Nb, Mo, Ta and W) exactly obeying the Smoluchowski rule (Table 9), (3) substantiation of both ϕe(111) >ϕe(100) >ϕe(110) for a variety of fcc-metals (except Al and Pb) and ϕ+(111) >ϕ+(100) >ϕ+(110) for Ni strictly following the above rule (Table 10), (4) verification of the quantitative relations between work function and surface energy and also melting point of the three low index planes of several metals (typically, Ni), (5) examination of the work function change (Δϕe) due to allotropic transformation from α to β or β to γ phase (Table 11) together with a concise outline of the Burgers orientation relationship, (6) evaluation of Δϕe due to liquefying (Table 12), (7) estimation of Δϕe due to transformation from ferro- to paramagnetic state (Table 13) in addition to a brief description of the Curie point dependence upon metastable metal film thickness above one monolayer, (8) estimation of Δϕe due to transition from normal to superconducting state (Table 14), (9) study of the work function dependence on the Wigner–Seitz radius and also comparison between its theoretical values (by Kohn) and experimental data (Fig. 2), (10) inspection of the annealing effect on work function for layers or films, (11) verification of the coincidence of work function values among different experimental methods, and (12) inquisition of the work function dependence upon the size of fine particles (∼20–100 Å in radius) studied by theory and experiment.
•Ten thousands of work function data are summarized together with methods and conditions.•Most probable work function values are listed for 600 surface species of 88 elements.•The above values are discussed comparatively with data recommended previously.•Three kinds of effective work functions are examined by theory and experiment.•Work function changes at various critical temperatures are analyzed critically.
A moving, cross-national account of working mothers' daily lives-and the revolution in public policy and culture needed to improve them
The work-family conflict that mothers experience today is a ...national crisis. Women struggle to balance breadwinning with the bulk of parenting, and stress is constant. Social policies don't help. Of all Western industrialized countries, the United States ranks dead last for supportive work-family policies: No federal paid parental leave. The highest gender wage gap. No minimum standard for vacation and sick days. The highest maternal and child poverty rates. Can American women look to European policies for solutions?Making Motherhood Workdraws on interviews that sociologist Caitlyn Collins conducted over five years with 135 middle-class working mothers in Sweden, Germany, Italy, and the United States. She explores how women navigate work and family given the different policy supports available in each country.
Taking readers into women's homes, neighborhoods, and workplaces, Collins shows that mothers' desires and expectations depend heavily on context. In Sweden-renowned for its gender-equal policies-mothers assume they will receive support from their partners, employers, and the government. In the former East Germany, with its history of mandated employment, mothers don't feel conflicted about working, but some curtail their work hours and ambitions. Mothers in western Germany and Italy, where maternalist values are strong, are stigmatized for pursuing careers. Meanwhile, American working mothers stand apart for their guilt and worry. Policies alone, Collins discovers, cannot solve women's struggles. Easing them will require a deeper understanding of cultural beliefs about gender equality, employment, and motherhood. With women held to unrealistic standards in all four countries, the best solutions demand that we redefine motherhood, work, and family.
Making Motherhood Workvividly demonstrates that women need not accept their work-family conflict as inevitable.
The Oxford Handbook of Meaningful Work examines the concept, practices, and effects of meaningful work in organizations and beyond. Taking an interdisciplinary approach, this volume reflects diverse ...scholarly contributions to understanding meaningful work from philosophy, political theory, psychology, sociology, organizational studies, and economics. In philosophy and political theory, treatments of meaningful work have been influenced by debates concerning the tensions between work as unavoidable and necessary, and work as a source of self-realization and human flourishing. This tension has come into renewed focus as work is reshaped by technology, globalization, and new forms of organization. In management studies, much empirical work has focused on meaningful work from the perspective of positive psychology, but more recent research has considered meaningful work as a complex phenomenon, socially constructed from interactive processes between individuals, and between individuals, organizations, and society. This Handbook examines meaningful work in the context of moral and pragmatic concerns such as dignity, alienation, freedom, organizational ethics, and corporate social responsibility. Representing some of the most up-to-date academic research, the collection illuminates the relationship of meaningful work to organizational constructs of identity, belonging, callings, self-transcendence, culture, and occupations. Researchers and practitioners will be inspired and equipped to identify new directions and methods with which to deepen scholarly inquiry into a topic of growing importance.
Remote working is the new reality, and transactional work provided by freelancers, contract employees or consultants has increased exponentially. It is forecast that as much as half the labor ...force will be working independently and virtually by 2020.Most organizations are still grappling with how to effectively manage their virtual staff and how to effectively support and motivate them an increasingly urgent task as more Millennials join the workforce, bringing changed attitudes to work satisfaction. This book, the fruit of the authors three decades of experience planning and implementing remote working environments, provides expert guidance for anyone planning a shift to remote working, managing teams of teleworkers, or themselves working in a virtual team.Working Virtually is for the executive leading changes in an enterprise that is preparing for virtual work or seeking to improve current performance. It offers tools to assess readiness, advice on creating appropriate reward policies, and strategies to adapt performance management processes to be more team-driven and technology leveraged. Working Virtually is written to and for the virtual leader who wants to establish high performing virtual teams. It provides an understanding of the roles and responsibilities of managing a virtual team, offering a wealth of advice on creating the conditions for collaboration, motivating team members, and identifying and defusing problems.Working Virtually is for the professional who works remotely from home, on the road, or in an office with remote colleagues. It is for anyone who wants to succeed in this new work environment by developing skills and networks to create a sustained and satisfying career path.With this new edition providing a 360° view of the roles and objectives of all stakeholders in the virtual workspace, this book uniquely provides readers with a rounded picture of the policies, processes, work habits, and commitments needed to achieve the shared goal of high performance remote teams.
Based on a thorough review of the literature we introduce an integrated conceptualization of work-life balance involving two key dimensions: engagement in work life and nonwork life and minimal ...conflict between social roles in work and nonwork life. Based on this conceptualization we review much of the evidence concerning the consequences of work-life balance in terms work-related, nonwork-related, and stress-related outcomes. We then identify a set of personal and organizational antecedents to work-life balance and explain their effects on work-life balance. Then we describe a set of theoretical mechanisms linking work-life balance and overall life satisfaction. Finally, we discuss future research directions and policy implications.
"Work-family conflicts are common and consequential for employees, their families, and work organizations. Can workplaces be changed to reduce work-family conflict? Previous research has not been ...able to assess whether workplace policies or initiatives succeed in reducing work-family conflict or increasing work-family fit. Using longitudinal data collected from 608 employees of a white-collar organization before and after a workplace initiative was implemented, we investigate whether the initiative affects work-family conflict and fit, whether schedule control mediates these effects, and whether work demands, including long hours, moderate the initiative's effects on work-family outcomes. Analyses clearly demonstrate that the workplace initiative positively affects the work-family interface, primarily by increasing employees' schedule control. This study points to the importance of schedule control for our understanding of job quality and for management policies and practices." (Author's abstract, IAB-Doku). Die Untersuchung enthält quantitative Daten. Forschungsmethode: empirisch-quantitativ; empirisch; Längsschnitt.
Schedule control and supervisor support for family and personal life may help employees manage the work-family interface. Existing data and research designs, however, have made it difficult to ...conclusively identify the effects of these work resources. This analysis utilizes a group-randomized trial in which some units in an information technology workplace were randomly assigned to participate in an initiative, called STAR, that targeted work practices, interactions, and expectations by (1) training supervisors on the value of demonstrating support for employees' personal lives and (2) prompting employees to reconsider when and where they work. We find statistically significant, although modest, improvements in employees' work-family conflict and family time adequacy, and larger changes in schedule control and supervisor support for family and personal life. We find no evidence that this intervention increased work hours or perceived job demands, as might have happened with increased permeability of work across time and space. Subgroup analyses suggest the intervention brought greater benefits to employees more vulnerable to work-family conflict. This study uses a rigorous design to investigate deliberate organizational changes and their effects on work resources and the work-family interface, advancing our understanding of the impact of social structures on individual lives.
The managed heart Hochschild, Arlie Russell
2012., 20120227, 2012, 2012-03-31
eBook
In private life, we try to induce or suppress love, envy, and anger through deep acting or "emotion work," just as we manage our outer expressions of feeling through surface acting. In trying to ...bridge a gap between what we feel and what we "ought" to feel, we take guidance from "feeling rules" about what is owing to others in a given situation. Based on our private mutual understandings of feeling rules, we make a "gift exchange" of acts of emotion management. We bow to each other not simply from the waist, but from the heart. But what occurs when emotion work, feeling rules, and the gift of exchange are introduced into the public world of work? In search of the answer, Arlie Russell Hochschild closely examines two groups of public-contact workers: flight attendants and bill collectors. The flight attendant's job is to deliver a service and create further demand for it, to enhance the status of the customer and be "nicer than natural." The bill collector's job is to collect on the service, and if necessary, to deflate the status of the customer by being "nastier than natural." Between these extremes, roughly one-third of American men and one-half of American women hold jobs that call for substantial emotional labor. In many of these jobs, they are trained to accept feeling rules and techniques of emotion management that serve the company's commercial purpose. Just as we have seldom recognized or understood emotional labor, we have not appreciated its cost to those who do it for a living. Like a physical laborer who becomes estranged from what he or she makes, an emotional laborer, such as a flight attendant, can become estranged not only from her own expressions of feeling (her smile is not "her" smile), but also from what she actually feels (her managed friendliness). This estrangement, though a valuable defense against stress, is also an important occupational hazard, because it is through our feelings that we are connected with those around us. On the basis of this book, Hochschild was featured in Key Sociological Thinkers, edited by Rob Stones. This book was also the winner of the Charles Cooley Award in 1983, awarded by the American Sociological Association and received an honorable mention for the C. Wright Mills Award.
Workers' ability to control their work schedules and hours varies significantly among industrialized countries. We integrate and extend prior research from a variety of literatures to examine ...antecedents of control and worker outcomes. Using hierarchical linear modeling and data for 21 countries from the 1997 ISSP Work Orientations Survey supplemented with national indicators developed from a variety of sources, we find that control is associated with country characteristics (affluence, welfare state generosity, union coverage, and workingtime regulations), worker attributes (being male, being older, and being better educated), and job characteristics (working part-time, being self-employed, having higher earnings, and having more advancement opportunities). We also examine the relationship of control to job satisfaction, organizational commitment, and strain-based work-family conflict. Generally, low levels of control are linked to negative outcomes for workers, especially for women, an effect sometimes modulated by country-level policy measures.
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