We describe the rapid isolation of single-domain recombinant antibodies in VHH format from a pre-immune llama library created in our laboratory. Such naïve library has demonstrated to be a versatile ...tool and enabled the isolation of several different antibodies for any of the six proteins panned in parallel. The binders specific for human fibroblast growth factor receptor 1 (FGFR1) were successively analyzed in more detail and resulted suitable for both western blot and immunofluorescence analyses. Several milligrams per liter of antibodies were purified by affinity chromatography and used for kinetic and thermodynamic characterization. Their KD was in the nanomolar range and they apparently bound a FGF receptor 1 domain not overlapping the region recognized by its physiological ligand FGF. Altogether, the collected data indicate that the new library can enable the recovery of binders of high affinity, specificity and functionality in the conventional immunological tests, avoiding the necessity of further maturation steps. Such results confirmed recent reports of high affinity pre-immune IgNARs and supported the choice of using large single-domain recombinant antibody naïve libraries as an alternative to the preparation of immune libraries for selecting monoclonal antibodies, at convenient cost and time conditions.
Purpose: We investigated the changes in the expression of proinflammatory cytokines and related molecules in the rodent hippocampus after the induction of limbic seizures. We then studied the effects ...of pharmacologic intervention on the interleukin (IL)‐1 system on limbic seizures and the susceptibility to seizures of transgenic mice overexpressing the naturally occurring antagonist of IL‐1 (IL‐1Ra) in astrocytes.
Methods: Limbic seizures were induced in rodents by intrahippocampal injection of kainic acid or bicuculline methiodide or by electrical stimulation of the hippocampus causing status epilepticus (SE). Seizure activity was recorded by EEG analysis and behavioral observation according to Racine's scale. Cytokine expression in the hippocampus was studied by reverse transcriptase–polymerase chain reaction (RT‐PCR) followed by Southern blot quantification of the various messenger RNAs (mRNAs) and by immunocytochemistry.
Results: We found that limbic seizures rapidly and transiently enhanced IL‐1β, IL‐6, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)‐α mRNA in the hippocampus with a peak effect at 6 h after SE. Immunoreactivity of the various cytokines was increased in glia. The increase of IL‐1Ra was delayed because the peak effect was observed at 24 h after SE. Moreover, IL‐1Ra was not produced in large excess, as during peripheral inflammation but in a molar ratio to IL‐1β of 1:1. Intrahippocampal injection of IL‐1β worsened seizure activity, whereas IL‐1Ra was a powerful anticonvulsant in various models of limbic seizures. Transgenic mice overexpressing IL‐1Ra in astrocytes were less sensitive to bicuculline‐induced seizures.
Conclusions: This study shows that limbic seizures in rodents rapidly and reversibly induce proinflammatory cytokines in glia and suggests that changes in the IL‐1Ra/IL‐1β ratio in brain may represent an effective physiopathologic mechanism to control seizures.
In adult rats, status epilepticus (SE) induces cytokine production by glia especially when seizures are associated with neuronal injury. This suggests that cytokines may play a role in ...seizure-induced neuronal damage. As SE-induced injury is age-specific, we used rats of different ages (with distinct susceptibilities to seizure-induced neuronal injury) to elucidate the role of cytokines in this process. Thus, we investigated the activation of microglia and astrocytes, induction of cytokines, and hippocampal neuronal injury 4 and 24 h following kainic acid-induced SE in postnatal day (PN) 9, 15, and 21 rats. At PN9, there was little activation of microglia and astrocytes at any time point studied. Interleukin-1β (IL), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF), and IL-6 or the naturally occurring IL-1 receptor antagonist (Ra) mRNA expression did not increase. No evidence of cell injury has been detected. At PN15, immunostaining of microglia and astrocytes was enhanced, but only IL-1β mRNA expression was increased. These changes were observed 4 h after SE. Scattered injured neurons in CA3 and subiculum, but not in any other region, were present 24 h following SE. At PN21, immunostaining of microglia and astrocytes and the mRNA expression of all cytokines studied was significantly increased already 4 h after SE. At 24 h, many injured neurons were present in CA1 and CA3 regions and in 40% of rats in other forebrain areas. These data show that (i) the pattern of glia activation and cytokine gene transcription induced by SE is age-dependent and (ii) neuronal injury in the hippocampus occurs only when cytokines are induced and their synthesis precedes the appearance of neuronal damage. Thus, cytokine expression in immature brain is associated specifically with cell injury rather than with seizures
per se, suggesting that proinflammatory cytokines may contribute to the occurence of SE-induced hippocampal damage.
The causes and mechanisms underlying multidrug resistance (MDR) in epilepsy are still elusive and may depend on inadequate drug concentration in crucial brain areas. We studied whether limbic ...seizures or anticonvulsant drug treatments in rodents enhance the brain expression of the MDR gene (mdr) encoding a permeability glycoprotein (P-gp) involved in MDR to various cancer chemotherapeutic agents. We also investigated whether changes in P-gp levels affect anticonvulsant drug concentrations in the brain. Mdr mRNA measured by RT-PCR increased by 85% on average in the mouse hippocampus 3-24 hr after kainic acid-induced limbic seizures, returning to control levels by 72 hr. Treatment with therapeutic doses of phenytoin or carbamazepine for 7 d did not change mdr mRNA expression in the mouse hippocampus 1-72 hr after the last drug administration. Six hours after seizures, the brain/plasma ratio of phenytoin was reduced by 30% and its extracellular concentration estimated by microdialysis was increased by twofold compared with control mice. Knock-out mice (mdr1a/b -/-) lacking P-gp protein showed a 46% increase in phenytoin concentrations in the hippocampus 1 and 4 hr after injection compared with wild-type mice. A significant 23% increase was found in the cerebellum at 1 hr and in the cortex at 4 hr. Carbamazepine concentrations were measurable in the hippocampus at 3 hr in mdr1a/b -/- mice, whereas they were undetectable at the same time interval in wild-type mice. In rats having spontaneous seizures 3 months after electrically induced status epilepticus, mdr1 mRNA levels were enhanced by 1.8-fold and fivefold on average in the hippocampus and entorhinal cortex, respectively. Thus, changes in P-gp mRNA levels occur in limbic areas after both acute and chronic epileptic activity. P-gp alterations significantly affect antiepileptic drugs concentrations in the brain, suggesting that seizure-induced mdr mRNA expression contributes to MDR in epilepsy.
Cre recombinase is a common reagent used for the in vivo on/off switching of the expression of target genes flanked by loxP sites. In particular, recombinant TAT-Cre fusion constructs purified from ...bacteria have been used to promote the cell uptake of the enzyme. However, the recovery of active TAT-Cre remains a demanding process and its specific activity varies significantly among batches, making difficult data comparison.
We noticed a strong correlation between recombinase activity and enzyme monodispersity. The existence of such correlation enabled us to indirectly monitor the TAT-Cre recombinase activity during the multi-step purification process by measuring its monodispersity, a parameter detectable by means of a spectrofluorimetric assay that allows the calculation of the Aggregation Index (AI) in an easy and rapid way. AI values were recorded after each purification passage to identify the critical steps and to choose optimal alternatives for chromatographic conditions, desalting procedures, and protocols for bacterial endotoxin removal. Furthermore, the effect of metal ions and temperature on TAT-Cre aggregation and inactivation was characterized in vitro. Finally, we optimized the enzyme delivery protocol in vivo by following the accumulation tuning of the reporter protein beta-catenin.
A rational purification protocol for TAT-Cre has been developed by choosing the options that minimize the enzyme aggregation. Our data suggest that AI measurement should support the optimization of any protocol aiming at the recovery of monodispersed protein.
► Recombinant antibodies for FGFR1 were isolated from a llama naïve library in VHH format. ► These antibodies compete with the natural ligand FGF-2 for the same epitope on FGFR1. ► The antibody ...competition inhibits the FGF-2-dependent internalization of FGFR1.
Single-domain antibodies in VHH format specific for fibroblast growth factor receptor 1 (FGFR1) were isolated from a phage-display llama naïve library. In particular, phage elution in the presence of the natural receptor ligand fibroblast growth factor (FGF) allowed for the identification of recombinant antibodies that compete with FGF for the same region on the receptor surface. These antibodies posses a relatively low affinity for FGFR1 and were never identified when unspecific elution conditions favoring highly affine binders were applied to panning procedures. Two populations of competitive antibodies were identified that labeled specifically the receptor-expressing cells in immunofluorescence and recognize distinct epitopes. Antibodies from both populations effectively prevented FGF-dependent internalization and nuclear accumulation of the receptor in cultured cells. This achievement indicates that these antibodies have a capacity to modulate the receptor physiology and, therefore, constitute powerful reagents for basic research and a potential lead for therapeutic applications.
Antibodies are indispensable reagents in basic research, and those raised against tags constitute a useful tool for the evaluation of the biochemistry and biology of novel proteins. In this paper, we ...describe the isolation and characterization of a single-domain recombinant antibody (VHH) specific for the SNAP-tag, using Twist2 as a test-protein. The antibody was efficient in western blot, immunoprecipitation, immunopurification, and immunofluorescence. The sequence corresponding to the anti-SNAP has been subcloned for large-scale expression in vectors that allow its fusion to either a 6xHis-tag or the Fc domain of rabbit IgG2 taking advantage of a new plasmid that was specifically designed for VHH antibodies. The two different fusion antibodies were compared in immunopurification and immunofluorescence experiments, and the recombinant protein SNAP-Twist2 was accurately identified by the anti-SNAP Fc-VHH construct in the nuclear/nucleolar subcellular compartment. Furthermore, such localization was confirmed by direct Twist2 identification by means of anti-Twisit2 VHH antibodies recovered after panning of the same naïve phage display library used to isolate the anti-SNAP binders. Our successful localization of Twist2 protein using the SNAP-tag-based approach and the anti-Twist2-specific recombinant single-domain antibodies opens new research possibilities in this field.
The lack of a sufficient number of antibodies represents an obstacle in the research performed using the zebrafish (
Danio rerio) as a model organism. On the other hand, high-throughput generation of ...antibodies, especially those suitable for immunohistochemistry, is not an established methodology. Here we present the results of an immunization experiment with a zebrafish tissue lysate that allowed for the isolation of hundreds of monoclonal antibodies suitable for labeling of a large variety of zebrafish tissue and cell structures. Some of them were further characterized in terms of detailed localization and age-dependent expression. In addition, the antigen recognized by one of them was first immunoprecipitated and then identified by mass spectrometry. Furthermore, immunofluorescence-competent recombinant antibodies were also isolated by panning large repertoire phage display libraries, in both single-chain (scFv) and single-domain (VHH) format. Such selection alternative is simpler to organize and could contribute to limit the costs of antibody screening and production.
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