The paradigm of personality psychopathology is shifting from one that is purely categorical in nature to one grounded in dimensional individual differences. Section III (Emerging Measures and Models) ...of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (5th ed. DSM-5; American Psychiatric Association, 2013), for example, includes a hybrid categorical/dimensional model of personality disorder classification. To inform the hybrid model, the DSM-5 Personality and Personality Disorders Work Group developed a self-report instrument to assess pathological personality traits-the Personality Inventory for the DSM-5 (PID-5). Since its recent introduction, 30 papers (39 samples) have been published examining various aspects of its psychometric properties. In this article, we review the psychometric characteristics of the PID-5 using the Standards for Educational and Psychological Testing as our framework. The PID-5 demonstrates adequate psychometric properties, including a replicable factor structure, convergence with existing personality instruments, and expected associations with broadly conceptualized clinical constructs. More research is needed with specific consideration to clinical utility, additional forms of reliability and validity, relations with psychopathological personality traits using clinical samples, alternative methods of criterion validation, effective employment of cut scores, and the inclusion of validity scales to propel this movement forward.
The Hamilton Depression Rating Scale has been the gold standard for the assessment of depression for more than 40 years. Criticism of the instrument has been increasing. The authors review studies ...published since the last major review of this instrument in 1979 that explicitly examine the psychometric properties of the Hamilton depression scale. The authors' goal is to determine whether continued use of the Hamilton depression scale as a measure of treatment outcome is justified.
MEDLINE was searched for studies published since 1979 that examine psychometric properties of the Hamilton depression scale. Seventy studies were identified and selected, and then grouped into three categories on the basis of the major psychometric properties examined-reliability, item-response characteristics, and validity.
The Hamilton depression scale's internal reliability is adequate, but many scale items are poor contributors to the measurement of depression severity; others have poor interrater and retest reliability. For many items, the format for response options is not optimal. Content validity is poor; convergent validity and discriminant validity are adequate. The factor structure of the Hamilton depression scale is multidimensional but with poor replication across samples.
Evidence suggests that the Hamilton depression scale is psychometrically and conceptually flawed. The breadth and severity of the problems militate against efforts to revise the current instrument. After more than 40 years, it is time to embrace a new gold standard for assessment of depression.
The alternative model for personality disorders (AMPD) is outlined in Section III of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition. This model includes 25 dimensional trait ...facets that are used as criteria for six personality disorders in addition to impairment in functioning. Numerous previous studies have examined the degree to which the proposed trait facets converge with the Section II personality disorders (PDs) they are meant to capture, but the results from these various studies have been inconsistent. The current investigation sought to provide a meta-analysis of published and unpublished data, and in particular, to develop empirically derived trait criterion profiles for each of the six AMPD PDs. A total of 25 independent data sets utilizing diverse samples and methods that included measurement of AMPD traits and at least one Section II PD derived from both published and unpublished work were considered for this review. The findings indicated general support for the traits proposed for each of the six PDs within the AMPD, with obsessive-compulsive PD the notable exception. The discriminant validity, however, was questionable for several of the PDs; several nonproposed traits also correlated with the Section II PD counterparts at moderate to large degrees. Intraclass correlations used to model the agreement across the empirically derived trait profiles for each of the six PDs, however, revealed that most of the disorders were relatively distinct from one another.
The 11th edition of the International Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD-11), recently approved by the World Health Organization, contains a new diagnostic approach for ...personality disorders. This approach partly involves the consideration of 5 dimensional trait domain qualifiers-Negative Affectivity, Detachment, Dissocial, Disinhibition, and Anankastia. Oltmanns and Widiger (2018) recently developed a self-report measure, the Personality Inventory for ICD-11 (PiCD), to assess the 5 domains; however, further examination of the psychometric properties of the PiCD is warranted due to its limited research base. The present study aimed to further examine the reliability, structural and concurrent validity, and method variance of the PiCD in an ethnically diverse undergraduate sample (N = 518), who were also administered the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2-Restructured Form. First, results suggested that the PiCD domain scales exhibited adequate internal consistency reliability via coefficient categorical omega (range = .77-.87). Next, exploratory structural equation modeling results suggested support for a 4-factor solution, with the 4th factor thought to represent a bipolar continuum of Anankastia to Disinhibition severity. Random-intercept factor analysis results suggested a small amount of variance in items (4.88%) attributable to idiosyncratic scale usage. Lastly, relations between PiCD domains and Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2-Restructured Form scales (Personality Psychopathology-5 and Higher Order scales) provided support for the validity of the Negative Affectivity, Detachment, and Dissocial domains, though relatively less support for the Disinhibition and Anankastia domains. Further examination of other psychometric properties and the nomological network of the PiCD is recommended.
Public Significance Statement
The Personality Inventory for ICD-11 (PiCD) is a psychological scale designed to assess five domains of maladaptive personality associated with the diagnosis of a personality disorder in the recently approved ICD-11. The present study aimed to further examine the psychometric properties of the PiCD, and results suggested that the five domains of the PiCD are adequately reliable and are mostly valid with respect to other maladaptive personality and psychopathology scores.
For more than a century, research on psychopathology has focused on categorical diagnoses. Although this work has produced major discoveries, growing evidence points to the superiority of a ...dimensional approach to the science of mental illness. Here we outline one such dimensional system—the Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology (HiTOP)—that is based on empirical patterns of co-occurrence among psychological symptoms. We highlight key ways in which this framework can advance mental-health research, and we provide some heuristics for using HiTOP to test theories of psychopathology. We then review emerging evidence that supports the value of a hierarchical, dimensional model of mental illness across diverse research areas in psychological science. These new data suggest that the HiTOP system has the potential to accelerate and improve research on mental-health problems as well as efforts to more effectively assess, prevent, and treat mental illness.
Shortcomings of approaches to classifying psychopathology based on expert consensus have given rise to contemporary efforts to classify psychopathology quantitatively. In this paper, we review ...progress in achieving a quantitative and empirical classification of psychopathology. A substantial empirical literature indicates that psychopathology is generally more dimensional than categorical. When the discreteness versus continuity of psychopathology is treated as a research question, as opposed to being decided as a matter of tradition, the evidence clearly supports the hypothesis of continuity. In addition, a related body of literature shows how psychopathology dimensions can be arranged in a hierarchy, ranging from very broad “spectrum level” dimensions, to specific and narrow clusters of symptoms. In this way, a quantitative approach solves the “problem of comorbidity” by explicitly modeling patterns of co‐occurrence among signs and symptoms within a detailed and variegated hierarchy of dimensional concepts with direct clinical utility. Indeed, extensive evidence pertaining to the dimensional and hierarchical structure of psychopathology has led to the formation of the Hierarchical Taxonomy of Psychopathology (HiTOP) Consortium. This is a group of 70 investigators working together to study empirical classification of psychopathology. In this paper, we describe the aims and current foci of the HiTOP Consortium. These aims pertain to continued research on the empirical organization of psychopathology; the connection between personality and psychopathology; the utility of empirically based psychopathology constructs in both research and the clinic; and the development of novel and comprehensive models and corresponding assessment instruments for psychopathology constructs derived from an empirical approach.
Borderline personality disorder (BPD) and antisocial personality disorder (ASPD) are the two most frequently diagnosed and researched DSM-5 personality disorders, and both are characterized by high ...levels of trait neuroticism. Fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH), an enzyme of the endocannabinoid system (ECS), has been linked to regulation of mood through modulation of anandamide, an endocannabinoid. We hypothesized that prefrontal cortex (PFC) FAAH binding would relate to trait neuroticism in personality disorders. Thirty-one individuals with personality disorders (20 with BPD and 11 with ASPD) completed the investigation. All participants completed the revised NEO Personality Inventory, which yields standardized scores (e.g., T scores) for the traits of neuroticism, openness, conscientiousness, agreeableness, and extraversion. All participants were medication free and were not utilizing illicit substances as determined by drug urinalysis. Additionally, none of the participants had a comorbid major depressive episode, bipolar disorder, psychotic disorder, or substance use disorder. Each participant underwent one
CCURB PET scan. Consistent with our hypothesis, neuroticism was positively correlated with PFC FAAH binding (r = 0.42, p = 0.021), controlling for genotype. Neuroticism was also positively correlated with dorsal putamen FAAH binding (r = 0.53, p = 0.0024), controlling for genotype. Elevated brain FAAH is an endophenotype for high neuroticism in BPD and ASPD. Novel pharmacological therapeutics that inhibit FAAH could emerge as potential new treatments for BPD and ASPD with high neuroticism.
The Five-Factor Model (FFM) is a dimensional model of general personality structure, consisting of the domains of neuroticism (or emotional instability), extraversion versus introversion, openness ...(or unconventionality), agreeableness versus antagonism, and conscientiousness (or constraint). The FFM is arguably the most commonly researched dimensional model of general personality structure. However, a notable limitation of existing measures of the FFM has been a lack of coverage of its maladaptive variants. A series of self-report inventories has been developed to assess for the maladaptive personality traits that define Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (fifth edition; DSM-5) Section II personality disorders (American Psychiatric Association APA, 2013) from the perspective of the FFM. In this paper, we provide an introduction to this Special Section, presenting the rationale and empirical support for these measures and placing them in the historical context of the recent revision to the APA diagnostic manual. This introduction is followed by 5 papers that provide further empirical support for these measures and address current issues within the personality assessment literature.
Public Significance Statement
The Five-Factor Model (FFM) is the predominant model for describing persons' characteristic way of thinking, feeling, and relating to others. This paper describes the effort to develop self-report measures of the dysfunctional or maladaptive variants of all 10 poles of all 5 domains of the FFM.
Twenty-five years ago, this journal published two articles reporting the development and initial validation of the 20-Item Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20). Since then the literature on alexithymia ...has burgeoned with the vast majority of this research using the TAS-20, including multiple language translations of the scale.
In this article we review the psychometric literature evaluating various aspects of the reliability and validity of the TAS-20 and examine some of the controversies surrounding the scale and the construct it assesses. We reflect on the ways in which the TAS-20 has advanced the measurement of the construct and theory of alexithymia. We also discuss recent developments and some future directions for the measurement of alexithymia.
Although not without some controversy, the preponderance of the accumulated evidence over a 25-year period supports various aspects of the reliability and validity of the TAS-20, including findings from confirmatory factor analytic and convergent and discriminant validity studies which are consistent with Nemiah et al.'s (Nemiah et al., 1976 3) and Taylor and colleagues (Taylor et al., 1997 9) theoretical formulations and definition of the alexithymia construct.
Based on the accumulated empirical evidence of 25 years, we conclude that the TAS-20 is a reliable and valid instrument and accurately reflects and measures the construct as it was originally defined by Nemiah et al. Nemiah et al. (1976) 3 as composed of deficits in affect awareness and expression and pensée opératoire (operational thinking). Clinicians and researchers can use the TAS-20 to confidently measure alexithymia, the roots of which have foundations in psychosomatic medicine.
•In this article we review comprehensively the 20-item Toronto Alexithymia Scale (TAS-20).•We examine some controversies surrounding the scale and the construct it assesses.•The preponderance of the accumulated evidence supports the psychometri properties of the scale.•The TAS-20 accurately reflects and measures the alexithymia construct as it was originally described by Nemiah and Sifneos.
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