Peatlands cover only 3% of the Earth's land surface but boreal and subarctic peatlands store about 15–30% of the world's soil carbon (C) as peat. Despite their potential for large positive feedbacks ...to the climate system through sequestration and emission of greenhouse gases, peatlands are not explicitly included in global climate models and therefore in predictions of future climate change. In April 2007 a symposium was held in Wageningen, the Netherlands, to advance our understanding of peatland C cycling. This paper synthesizes the main findings of the symposium, focusing on (i) small-scale processes, (ii) C fluxes at the landscape scale, and (iii) peatlands in the context of climate change. The main drivers controlling C fluxes are largely scale dependent and most are related to some aspects of hydrology. Despite high spatial and annual variability in Net Ecosystem Exchange (NEE), the differences in cumulative annual NEE are more a function of broad scale geographic location and physical setting than internal factors, suggesting the existence of strong feedbacks. In contrast, trace gas emissions seem mainly controlled by local factors. Key uncertainties remain concerning the existence of perturbation thresholds, the relative strengths of the CO2 and CH4 feedback, the links among peatland surface climate, hydrology, ecosystem structure and function, and trace gas biogeochemistry as well as the similarity of process rates across peatland types and climatic zones. Progress on these research areas can only be realized by stronger co-operation between disciplines that address different spatial and temporal scales.
Ombrotrophic bogs in southern Patagonia have been examined with regard to paleoclimatic and geochemical research questions but knowledge about organic matter decomposition in these bogs is limited. ...Therefore, we examined peat humification with depth by Fourier Transformed Infrared (FTIR) measurements of solid peat, C/N ratio, and δ13C and δ15N isotope measurements in three bog sites. Peat decomposition generally increased with depth but distinct small scale variation occurred, reflecting fluctuations in factors controlling decomposition. C/N ratios varied mostly between 40 and 120 and were significantly correlated (R2 > 0.55, p < 0.01) with FTIR-derived humification indices. The degree of decomposition was lowest at a site presently dominated by Sphagnum mosses. The peat was most strongly decomposed at the driest site, where currently peat-forming vegetation produced less refractory organic material, possibly due to fertilizing effects of high sea spray deposition. Decomposition of peat was also advanced near ash layers, suggesting a stimulation of decomposition by ash deposition. Values of δ13C were 26.5 ± 2‰ in the peat and partly related to decomposition indices, while δ15N in the peat varied around zero and did not consistently relate to any decomposition index. Concentrations of DOM partly related to C/N ratios, partly to FTIR derived indices. They were not conclusively linked to the decomposition degree of the peat. DOM was enriched in 13C and in 15N relative to the solid phase probably due to multiple microbial modifications and recycling of N in these N-poor environments. In summary, the depth profiles of C/N ratios, δ13C values, and FTIR spectra seemed to reflect changes in environmental conditions affecting decomposition, such as bog wetness, but were dominated by site specific factors, and are further influenced by ash deposition and possibly by sea spray input.
As soil solutions pass through forested mineral soils, the chemical and structural compositions of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) can alter substantially due to interactions with soil particle ...surfaces. Typically, adsorption processes dominate in mineral soils and the resulting concentration of DOC is reduced substantially. We studied changes in the molecular and structural compositions of DOC during equilibration with mineral soils collected across Canada (n=43) and found that the overall aromatic content of DOC decreased with equilibration in almost all cases from using specific absorbance (SUVA) and the fluorescence index. The fluorescence index revealed that podzolic B horizons, with typically large adsorption capacity (Qmax), had the greatest reduction in aromaticity, which was partially explained by the much lower aromatic content of DOC desorbed from soils surfaces. In contrast, a decrease in DOC aromaticity for volcanic B horizons, also with high Qmax, was primarily due to adsorption. An unexpected finding was the release of extremely high (2.6×106Da) and low (420Da) molecular weight (MW) organic materials during equilibration using high performance size exclusion chromatography (HPLC), for luvisols and podzols, respectively. In general, the average number–average MW (Mn) of DOC decreased for all soil types, but the greatest decrease in Mn was observed for mineral soils with large Qmax, including the podzolic and volcanic B horizons. Analysis of changes in FTIR spectra revealed that the most prominent change to DOC functional groups was a reduction in carboxyl groups, which was even greater than the removal of aromatic DOC. The findings of this study emphasize that while DOC concentrations may decrease substantially during passage through mineral soils, it is valuable to consider the contribution of DOC from desorption of pre-existing soil C. Essential to the findings of this study was the inclusion of multiple analytical techniques to track changes to DOC character, and the inclusion of a wide range of mineral soils.
► The molecular composition of DOC after equilibration with mineral soils changed. ► We find lower aromaticity and molecular weight, with a loss of carboxyl groups. ► We differentiate the response between different mineral horizons. ► Multiple analytical tools gave a more robust understanding of exchange reactions.
Elevated nitrogen deposition and climate change alter the vegetation communities and carbon (C) and nitrogen (N) cycling in peatlands. To address this issue we developed a new process-oriented ...biogeochemical model (PEATBOG) for analyzing coupled carbon and nitrogen dynamics in northern peatlands. The model consists of four submodels, which simulate: (1) daily water table depth and depth profiles of soil moisture, temperature and oxygen levels; (2) competition among three plants functional types (PFTs), production and litter production of plants; (3) decomposition of peat; and (4) production, consumption, diffusion and export of dissolved C and N species in soil water. The model is novel in the integration of the C and N cycles, the explicit spatial resolution belowground, the consistent conceptualization of movement of water and solutes, the incorporation of stoichiometric controls on elemental fluxes and a consistent conceptualization of C and N reactivity in vegetation and soil organic matter. The model was evaluated for the Mer Bleue Bog, near Ottawa, Ontario, with regards to simulation of soil moisture and temperature and the most important processes in the C and N cycles. Model sensitivity was tested for nitrogen input, precipitation, and temperature, and the choices of the most uncertain parameters were justified. A simulation of nitrogen deposition over 40 yr demonstrates the advantages of the PEATBOG model in tracking biogeochemical effects and vegetation change in the ecosystem.
Climate change induced drying and flooding may alter the redox conditions of organic matter decomposition in peat soils. The seasonal and intermittent changes in pore water solutes (NO3−, Fe2+, ...SO42−, H2S, acetate) and dissolved soil gases (CO2, O2, CH4, H2) under natural water table fluctuations were compared to the response under a reinforced drying and flooding in fen peats. Oxygen penetration during dryings led to CO2 and CH4 degassing and to a regeneration of dissolved electron acceptors (NO3−, Fe3+ and SO42−). Drying intensity controlled the extent of the electron acceptor regeneration. Iron was rapidly reduced and sulfate pools ~ 1 mM depleted upon rewetting and CH4 did not substantially accumulate until sulfate levels declined to ~ 100 μmol L−1. The post-rewetting recovery of soil methane concentrations to levels ~ 80 μmol L−1 needed 40–50 days after natural drought. This recovery was prolonged after experimentally reinforced drought. A greater regeneration of electron acceptors during drying was not related to prolonged methanogenesis suppression after rewetting. Peat compaction, solid phase content of reactive iron and total reduced inorganic sulfur and organic matter content controlled oxygen penetration, the regeneration of electron acceptors and the recovery of CH4 production, respectively. Methane production was maintained despite moderate water table decline of 20 cm in denser peats. Flooding led to accumulation of acetate and H2, promoted CH4 production and strengthened the co-occurrence of iron and sulfate reduction and methanogenesis. Mass balances during drying and flooding indicated that an important fraction of the electron flow must have been used for the generation and consumption of electron acceptors in the solid phase or other mechanisms. In contrast to flooding, dry-wet cycles negatively affect methane production on a seasonal scale, but this impact might strongly depend on drying intensity and on the peat matrix, of which structure and physical properties influence moisture content.
Elevated nitrogen (N) deposition changes the retention, transformation, and fluxes of N in ombrotrophic peatlands. To evaluate such effects we applied a 15N tracer (NH4 15NO3) at a rate of ...2.3 g N m−2 yr−1 to mesocosms of five European peatlands with differing long-term N deposition rates for a period of 76 days of dry and 90 days of wet conditions. We determined background N content and moss length growth, and recovered the 15N tracer from the mosses, graminoids, shrubs, the peat, and dissolved N. Background N contents in Sphagnum mosses increased from 5.5 (Degerö Stormyr, deposition < 0.2 g N m−2 yr−1) up to 12.2 mg g−1 (Frölichshaier Sattelmoor, 4.7–6.0 g N m−2 yr−1). In peat from Degerö, nitrate and ammonium concentrations were below 3 mg L−1, whereas up to 30 (nitrate) and 11 mg L−1 (ammonium) was found in peat from Frölichshaier Sattelmoor. Sphagnum mosses (down to 5 cm below surface) generally intercepted large amounts of 15N (0.2–0.35 mg g−1) and retained the tracer most effectively relative to their biomass. Similar quantities of the 15N were recovered from the peat, followed by shrubs, graminoids, and the dissolved pool. At the most polluted sites we recovered more 15N from shrubs (up to 12.4 %) and from nitrate and ammonium (up to 0.7 %). However, no impact of N deposition on 15N retention by Sphagnum could be identified and their length growth was highest under high N background deposition. Our experiment suggests that the decline in N retention at levels above ca. 1.5 g m−2 yr−1, as expressed by elevated near-surface peat N content and increased dissolved N concentrations, is likely more modest than previously thought. This conclusion is related to the finding that Sphagnum species can apparently thrive at elevated long-term N deposition rates in European peatlands.
Elevated nitrogen (N) deposition changes the retention, transformation, and fluxes of N in ombrotrophic peatlands. To evaluate such effects we applied a15N tracer (NH4 15NO3) at a rate of 2.3 g N m-2 ...yr-1 to mesocosms of five European peatlands with differing long-term N deposition rates for a period of 76 days of dry and 90 days of wet conditions. We determined background N content and moss length growth, and recovered the 15N tracer from the mosses, graminoids, shrubs, the peat, and dissolved N. Background N contents in Sphagnum mosses increased from 5.5 (Degerö Stormyr, deposition <0.2 g N m-2 yr-1) up to 12.2 mg g-1 (Frölichshaier Sattelmoor, 4.7–6.0 g N m-2 yr-1). In peat from Degerö, nitrate and ammonium concentrations were below 3 mg L-1, whereas up to 30 (nitrate) and 11 mg L-1 (ammonium) was found in peat from Frölichshaier Sattelmoor. Sphagnum mosses (down to 5 cm below surface) generally intercepted large amounts of 15N (0.2–0.35 mg g-1) and retained the tracer most effectively relative to their biomass. Similar quantities of the 15N were recovered from the peat, followed by shrubs, graminoids, and the dissolved pool. At the most polluted sites we recovered more 15N from shrubs (up to 12.4 %) and from nitrate and ammonium (up to 0.7 %). However, no impact of N deposition on15N retention by Sphagnum could be identified and their length growth was highest under high N background deposition. Our experiment suggests that the decline in N retention at levels above ca. 1.5 g m-2 yr-1, as expressed by elevated near-surface peat N content and increased dissolved N concentrations, is likely more modest than previously thought. This conclusion is related to the finding thatSphagnum species can apparently thrive at elevated long-term N deposition rates in European peatlands.
Ombrotrophic, oceanic bogs in southern Patagonia have not yet been studied with respect to ongoing belowground organic matter decomposition. To obtain such information we analyzed three sites ...differing in precipitation and sea spray input and quantified concentration patterns and 12/13C isotopic composition of CO₂ and CH₄ and iron, sulfur and trace metal contents that can influence decomposition. Concentrations of CO₂ and CH₄ increased with depth and reached 4,000–6,000 μmol L⁻¹ of CO₂ and 500–1,400 μmol L⁻¹ of CH₄. Chamber surface fluxes ranged from 40 to 62 mmol m⁻² day⁻¹ for CO₂ and were not detectable for CH₄ (<0.2 mmol m⁻² day⁻¹). Lowest gaseous C concentrations and fluxes occurred at the driest site under high sea spray input, which was accompanied by a higher degree of decomposition. Isotope fractionation factors αc ranged from 1.047 to 1.077 and suggested a predominance of hydrogenotrophic methanogenesis. The lower CH₄ concentrations at one particular site may have been caused by a number of processes but isotope mass balances indicated a preferential loss of CH₄ at all sites, especially at the site of lowest CH₄ concentrations. Low CH₄ concentrations were found under a high sea spray input and higher sulfate and reduced inorganic sulfur contents, suggesting a potential for attenuation of methanogenesis by sulfate reduction. All sites were characterized by very low Nickel concentrations of mostly <15 nmol L⁻¹ and low concentrations of other essential trace elements that may further inhibit methanogenesis but also methanotrophy. The Patagonian sites fell within the reported range of CO₂ and CH₄ concentrations and depth patterns, and isotopic composition of the gases at northern sites despite different vegetation composition and seemingly lower surface fluxes. Fairly high sulfate and low trace element concentrations due to differences in atmospheric deposition may locally modify the decomposition patterns.
Nitrogen (N) pollution of peatlands alters their carbon (C) balances, yet long-term effects and controls are poorly understood. We applied the model PEATBOG to explore impacts of long-term nitrogen ...(N) fertilization on C cycling in an ombrotrophic bog. Simulations of summer gross ecosystem production (GEP), ecosystem respiration (ER) and net ecosystem exchange (NEE) were evaluated against 8 years of observations and extrapolated for 80 years to identify potential effects of N fertilization and factors influencing model behaviour. The model successfully simulated moss decline and raised GEP, ER and NEE on fertilized plots. GEP was systematically overestimated in the model compared to the field data due to factors that can be related to differences in vegetation distribution (e.g. shrubs vs. graminoid vegetation) and to high tolerance of vascular plants to N deposition in the model. Model performance regarding the 8-year response of GEP and NEE to N input was improved by introducing an N content threshold shifting the response of photosynthetic capacity (GEPmax) to N content in shrubs and graminoids from positive to negative at high N contents. Such changes also eliminated the competitive advantages of vascular species and led to resilience of mosses in the long-term. Regardless of the large changes of C fluxes over the short-term, the simulated GEP, ER and NEE after 80 years depended on whether a graminoid- or shrub-dominated system evolved. When the peatland remained shrub-Sphagnum-dominated, it shifted to a C source after only 10 years of fertilization at 6.4 g N m-2 yr-1, whereas this was not the case when it became graminoid-dominated. The modelling results thus highlight the importance of ecosystem adaptation and reaction of plant functional types to N deposition, when predicting the future C balance of N-polluted cool temperate bogs.
Ombrotrophic peatlands depend on airborne nitrogen (N), whose deposition has increased in the past and lead to disappearance of mosses and increased shrub biomass in fertilization experiments. The ...response of soil water content, temperature, and carbon gas concentrations to increased nutrient loading is poorly known and we thus determined these data at the long-term N fertilization site Mer Bleue bog, Ontario, during a two month period in summer. Soil temperatures decreased with NPK addition in shallow peat soil primarily during the daytime (t-test, p < 0.05) owing to increased shading, whereas they increased in deeper peat soil (t-test, p < 0.05), probably by enhanced thermal conductivity. These effects were confirmed by RM ANOVA, which also suggested an influence of volumetric water contents as co-variable on soil temperature and vice versa (p < 0.05). Averaged over all fertilized treatments, the mean soil temperatures at 5 cm depth decreased by 1.3 °C and by 4.7 °C (standard deviation 0.9 °C) at noon. Water content was most strongly affected by within-plot spatial heterogeneity but also responded to both N and PK load according to RM ANOVA (p < 0.05). Overall, water content and CO2 concentrations in the near-surface peat (t-test, p < 0.05) were lower with increasing N load, suggesting more rapid soil gas exchange. The results thus suggest that changes in bog ecosystem structure with N deposition have significant ramifications for physical parameters that in turn control biogeochemical processes.
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