Recent studies have shown that there is a direct link between the orientation of the nerve fibers in white matter (WM) and the contrast observed in magnitude and phase images acquired using gradient ...echo MRI. Understanding the origin of this link is of great interest because it could offer access to a new diagnostic tool for investigating tissue microstructure. Since it has been suggested that myelin is the dominant source of this contrast, creating an accurate model for characterizing the effect of the myelin sheath on the evolution of the NMR signal is an essential step toward fully understanding WM contrast. In this study, we show by comparison of the results of simulations and experiments carried out on human subjects at 7T, that the magnitude and phase of signals acquired from WM in vivo can be accurately characterized by (i) modeling the myelin sheath as a hollow cylinder composed of material having an anisotropic magnetic susceptibility that is described by a tensor with a radially oriented principal axis, and (ii) adopting a two-pool model in which the water in the sheath has a reduced T ₂ relaxation time and spin density relative to its surroundings, and also undergoes exchange. The accuracy and intrinsic simplicity of the hollow cylinder model provides a versatile framework for future exploitation of the effect of WM microstructure on gradient echo contrast in clinical MRI.
Optimisation and comparison of the performance of three different methods for calculating three-dimensional susceptibility maps of the whole brain from gradient-echo (phase and modulus) image data ...acquired at 7 T is described. The methods studied are a multiple-orientation method in which image data acquired with the head at several different angles to the main field are combined and two methods which use data acquired at a single orientation: the first of these is based on exclusion of some k-space data from the calculation (through thresholding of the dipolar field kernel), while the second incorporates a regularisation method that is based on using information from the modulus images. The methods were initially optimised via analysis of data from a phantom containing different compartments of known susceptibility. As part of this work, a novel high-pass filtering methodology was introduced to remove background fields from field maps based on phase data. The optimised methods were successfully applied to high-resolution (0.7
mm isotropic) whole-brain modulus and phase data acquired
in vivo from five healthy male subjects, 25–30
years of age. The multiple-orientation method yielded high quality susceptibility maps, out-performing the single-orientation methods. Venous blood vessels as well as the substantia nigra and globus pallidus brain regions showed particularly high positive susceptibility offsets relative to surrounding tissue, consistent with high deoxyhemoglobin and non-heme iron content, respectively. To compare the performance of the different methods, regions of interest were drawn in deep grey matter structures and in cortical grey and white matter. The threshold-based approach was fast and simple to use, but underestimated susceptibility differences and showed significant artefacts due to noise amplification in difficult regions of k-space. The regularised single-orientation method yielded contrast dependent on the choice of spatial priors, but demonstrated the potential to yield susceptibility maps of a similar quality to those calculated using data acquired at multiple orientations to the field.
►A multiple-orientation method and two single-orientation methods are compared. ►Whole-brain susceptibility maps were successfully created at 7 T using each method. ►The multiple-orientation method out-performed the single-orientation methods. ►The regularised single-orientation method yielded accurate bulk values. ►The threshold-based single-orientation method slightly underestimated values.
The human brain undergoes significant functional and structural changes in the first decades of life, as the foundations for human cognition are laid down. However, non-invasive imaging techniques to ...investigate brain function throughout neurodevelopment are limited due to growth in head-size with age and substantial head movement in young participants. Experimental designs to probe brain function are also limited by the unnatural environment typical brain imaging systems impose. However, developments in quantum technology allowed fabrication of a new generation of wearable magnetoencephalography (MEG) technology with the potential to revolutionise electrophysiological measures of brain activity. Here we demonstrate a lifespan-compliant MEG system, showing recordings of high fidelity data in toddlers, young children, teenagers and adults. We show how this system can support new types of experimental paradigm involving naturalistic learning. This work reveals a new approach to functional imaging, providing a robust platform for investigation of neurodevelopment in health and disease.
Optically Pumped Magnetometers (OPMs) have emerged as a viable and wearable alternative to cryogenic, superconducting MEG systems. This new generation of sensors has the advantage of not requiring ...cryogenic cooling and as a result can be flexibly placed on any part of the body. The purpose of this review is to provide a neuroscience audience with the theoretical background needed to understand the physical basis for the signal observed by OPMs. Those already familiar with the physics of MRI and NMR should note that OPMs share much of the same theory as the operation of OPMs rely on magnetic resonance. This review establishes the physical basis for the signal equation for OPMs. We re-derive the equations defining the bounds on OPM performance and highlight the important trade-offs between quantities such as bandwidth, sensor size and sensitivity. These equations lead to a direct upper bound on the gain change due to cross-talk for a multi-channel OPM system.
•We review the theoretical basis of OPMs.•We re-derive the signal equations for OPMs.•We highlight the important trade-offs in sensor design.•We discuss the practical implementation of this technology.
Optically-pumped magnetometers (OPMs) are an established alternative to superconducting sensors for magnetoencephalography (MEG), offering significant advantages including flexibility to accommodate ...any head size, uniform coverage, free movement during scanning, better data quality and lower cost. However, OPM sensor technology remains under development; there is flexibility regarding OPM design and it is not yet clear which variant will prove most effective for MEG. Most OPM-MEG implementations have either used single-axis (equivalent to conventional MEG) or dual-axis magnetic field measurements. Here we demonstrate use of a triaxial OPM formulation, able to characterise the full 3D neuromagnetic field vector. We show that this novel sensor is able to characterise magnetic fields with high accuracy and sensitivity that matches conventional (dual-axis) OPMs. We show practicality via measurement of biomagnetic fields from both the heart and the brain. Using simulations, we demonstrate how triaxial measurement offers improved cortical coverage, especially in infants. Finally, we introduce a new 3D-printed child-friendly OPM-helmet and demonstrate feasibility of triaxial measurement in a five-year-old. In sum, the data presented demonstrate that triaxial OPMs offer a significant improvement over dual-axis variants and are likely to become the sensor of choice for future MEG systems, particularly for deployment in paediatric populations.
Magnetoencephalography (MEG) is a powerful technique for functional neuroimaging, offering a non-invasive window on brain electrophysiology. MEG systems have traditionally been based on cryogenic ...sensors which detect the small extracranial magnetic fields generated by synchronised current in neuronal assemblies, however, such systems have fundamental limitations. In recent years, non-cryogenic quantum-enabled sensors, called optically-pumped magnetometers (OPMs), in combination with novel techniques for accurate background magnetic field control, have promised to lift those restrictions offering an adaptable, motion-robust MEG system, with improved data quality, at reduced cost. However, OPM-MEG remains a nascent technology, and whilst viable systems exist, most employ small numbers of sensors sited above targeted brain regions. Here, building on previous work, we construct a wearable OPM-MEG system with ‘whole-head’ coverage based upon commercially available OPMs, and test its capabilities to measure alpha, beta and gamma oscillations. We design two methods for OPM mounting; a flexible (EEG-like) cap and rigid (additively-manufactured) helmet. Whilst both designs allow for high quality data to be collected, we argue that the rigid helmet offers a more robust option with significant advantages for reconstruction of field data into 3D images of changes in neuronal current. Using repeat measurements in two participants, we show signal detection for our device to be highly robust. Moreover, via application of source-space modelling, we show that, despite having 5 times fewer sensors, our system exhibits comparable performance to an established cryogenic MEG device. While significant challenges still remain, these developments provide further evidence that OPM-MEG is likely to facilitate a step change for functional neuroimaging.
•A 49-channel whole-head OPM-MEG system is constructed.•System evaluated via repeat measurements of alpha, beta and gamma oscillations.•Two OPM-helmet designs are contrasted, a flexible (EEG-like) cap and a rigid helmet.•The rigid helmet offers significant advantages for a viable OPM-MEG device.•49-channel OPM-MEG offers performance comparable to established cryogenic devices.
•Optically pumped magnetometers can measure magnetic field vectors.•Triaxial measurements provide extra information for magnetic source imaging.•A theoretical analysis shows how triaxial measurement ...can optimise spatial filtering.•A triaxial array offers dramatic reduction in external interference and motion artefact.•Theoretical results are backed up by an experimental MEG recording.
The optically pumped magnetometer (OPM) is a viable means to detect magnetic fields generated by human brain activity. Compared to conventional detectors (superconducting quantum interference devices) OPMs are small, lightweight, flexible, and operate without cryogenics. This has led to a step change in instrumentation for magnetoencephalography (MEG), enabling a “wearable” scanner platform, adaptable to fit any head size, able to acquire data whilst subjects move, and offering improved data quality. Although many studies have shown the efficacy of ‘OPM-MEG’, one relatively untapped advantage relates to improved array design. Specifically, OPMs enable the simultaneous measurement of magnetic field components along multiple axes (distinct from a single radial orientation, as used in most conventional MEG systems). This enables characterisation of the magnetic field vector at all sensors, affording extra information which has the potential to improve source reconstruction. Here, we conduct a theoretical analysis of the critical parameters that should be optimised for effective source reconstruction. We show that these parameters can be optimised by judicious array design incorporating triaxial MEG measurements. Using simulations, we demonstrate how a triaxial array offers a dramatic improvement on our ability to differentiate real brain activity from sources of magnetic interference (external to the brain). Further, a triaxial system is shown to offer a marked improvement in the elimination of artefact caused by head movement. Theoretical results are supplemented by an experimental recording demonstrating improved interference reduction. These findings offer new insights into how future OPM-MEG arrays can be designed with improved performance.
Optically-pumped magnetometers (OPMs) offer the potential for a step change in magnetoencephalography (MEG) enabling wearable systems that provide improved data quality, accommodate any subject ...group, allow data capture during movement and potentially reduce cost. However, OPM-MEG is a nascent technology and, to realise its potential, it must be shown to facilitate key neuroscientific measurements, such as the characterisation of brain networks. Networks, and the connectivities that underlie them, have become a core area of neuroscientific investigation, and their importance is underscored by many demonstrations of their disruption in brain disorders. Consequently, a demonstration of network measurements using OPM-MEG would be a significant step forward. Here, we aimed to show that a wearable 50-channel OPM-MEG system enables characterisation of the electrophysiological connectome. To this end, we measured connectivity in the resting state and during a visuo-motor task, using both OPM-MEG and a state-of-the-art 275-channel cryogenic MEG device. Our results show that resting-state connectome matrices from OPM and cryogenic systems exhibit a high degree of similarity, with correlation values >70%. In addition, in task data, similar differences in connectivity between individuals (scanned multiple times) were observed in cryogenic and OPM-MEG data, again demonstrating the fidelity of the OPM-MEG device. This is the first demonstration of network connectivity measured using OPM-MEG, and results add weight to the argument that OPMs will ultimately supersede cryogenic sensors for MEG measurement.
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