Since the middle of the 18th century, the Austrian Military Frontier had a permanent cordon sanitaire to prevent the spread of contagious diseases, particularly the plague, from the Ottoman Empire to ...the territory of the Habsburg Monarchy. It was a unique system of land quarantine with a chain of blockhouses (chartaques, čardaci), built in a continuous line from Bijeli Vrh in Lika to the Carpathians, with geostrategically located quarantine stations (called kontumaci and raštele) as border crossings. All traffic and trade from the neighboring Bosnia and Serbia through the Military Frontier was subject to a rigorous regime of epidemiological measures implemented in the quarantine stations by specialized sanitary personnel. Based on “potential infection” of travelers and goods, the personnel imposed a quarantine of between 10 and 42 days. Direct control of the border, the so-called “cordon service”, was primarily maintained by the members of Seressaner Corps who, unlike other Military Frontier troops, wore folk costumes rather than the Austrian military uniform. In case of the highest degree of danger, when there was direct threat of contagion from the Ottoman Empire, the border guards were under orders to shoot dead and burn anyone crossing the border illegally. However, despite these drastic measures, cross-border trade gradually increased in the early 19th century, and there was no significant decline in illegal border crossings and migrations.
U ovom su radu objedinjeni životopisi autora prvih povjesnica o Vojnoj krajini, čiji radovi čine nezaobilaznu ‘nultu točku’ istraživanja osobito u povijesnoj znanosti, ali i u širim ...društveno-humanističkim znanostima. Rekonstrukcija njihovih života napravljena je na temelju dosad objavljenih podataka u sekundarnoj literaturi, a praznine u njihovim biografijama pokušavalo se, gdje je to bilo moguće, popunjavati pomoću relevantnih mjesečnih vojnih popisa, prateće dokumentacije tih popisa i matičnih knjiga. Najviše su pritom pomogle potvrde o premještaju, koje osim osnovnih podataka o osobnom životu nude i vrlo detaljan pregled napredovanja u profesionalnoj karijeri. Istim je spisima bilo moguće ispraviti i neke pogreške u njihovim objavljenim životopisima koje su se dosad provlačile.
This paper brings together biographies of the earliest historiographers of the Military Frontier, whose works represent the inevitable “zero point” in historical disciplines as well as the humanities at large. These historiographers include Johann Andreas Demian (ca. 1770 – 1845), Carl Bernhard von Hietzinger (November 3, 1786 – March 26, 1864), Mathias Stopfer (1795 – September 8, 1841), Franz de Paula Julius Frass (1794 – March 11, 1868), Paul Kussan (January 12, 1795 – February 2, 1875), Franz Bach (1793 – February 3, 1868), Josef Hostinek (1830 – January 10, 1905), Leopold Martin Krainz (born around 1820), and Franz Vaniček (July 6, 1809 – April 6, 1894). Their lives were reconstructed on the basis of previously published data in secondary literature, and gaps were filled in, where possible, with the help of relevant monthly army censuses, the accompanying documentation, and registry books. Transfer certificates, which in addition to basic information on personal lives offer a very detailed overview of progress in the professional career, helped the most. Using these documents, it was possible to correct some overlooked errors in the previously published biographies. Comparing the biographies of the first historiographers of the Military Frontier, the authors have noticed some very interesting similarities as well as differences. Most of the studied persons were officials of the Military Frontier administration, except for Demian and Hietzinger, who belonged to the highest military council in Vienna, and Krainz, who partly made his career in a military unit. Three of them were prominent members of educational staff in the Military Frontier. Stopfer was a professor at the Military Administration School in Graz, Frass was the principal of all schools in the Karlovac Generalate, and Vaniček was the principal of the Higher Grammar School in Vinkovci. Bach and Krainz served as military judges. Historiographers with most writings relevant to the Military Frontier are Demian, Stopfer and Vaniček. Hietzinger, Kussan, Bach, Hostinek, and Krainz published one seminal work each. While at the beginning the emphasis was on statistics and geography, from the mid-19th century the focus increasingly shifted to historical events. Most authors based themselves on works published before theirs: Hietzinger on Demian, Stopfer on Hietzinger, Frass on Hietzinger and Stopfer, and so on. However, the most interesting discoveries about their personal and professional lives concern the way these were intertwined. Based on the available and collected data, it could be established that seven of the nine mentioned persons lived to be between 74 and 84 years old. Stopfer died the youngest, at the age of 45, and it was not possible to find out Krainz’s date of death. A combination of high age and a long professional career, which implied frequent transfers, created favourable conditions for possible encounters. Between 1828 and 1830, Stopfer and Bach served simultaneously in the Otočac Regiment, Hostinek was a student of Vaniček and then Stopfer, and Vaniček was member of a society whose president was Hietzinger, the Imperial and Royal Geographical Society in Vienna (
k. k. Geographische Gesellschaft
). Although the authors of this paper have tried to shed as much light as possible on the careers of historiographers whose works have been indispensable guideposts on the path of scholarly knowledge about the Military Frontier as a historical phenomenon, the primary intention was to encourage further research into this understudied historical topic.
This paper brings together biographies of the earliest historiographers of the Military Frontier, whose works represent the inevitable “zero point” in historical disciplines as well as the humanities ...at large. These historiographers include Johann Andreas Demian (ca. 1770 – 1845), Carl Bernhard von Hietzinger (November 3, 1786 – March 26, 1864), Mathias Stopfer (1795 – September 8, 1841), Franz de Paula Julius Frass (1794 – March 11, 1868), Paul Kussan (January 12, 1795 – February 2, 1875), Franz Bach (1793 – February 3, 1868), Josef Hostinek (1830 – January 10, 1905), Leopold Martin Krainz (1834 – December 26, 1872), and Franz Vaniček (July 6, 1809 – April 6, 1894). Their lives were reconstructed on the basis of previously published data in secondary literature, and gaps were filled in, where possible, with the help of relevant monthly army censuses, the accompanying documentation, and registry books. Transfer certificates, which in addition to basic information on personal lives offer a very detailed overview of progress in the professional career, helped the most. Using these documents, it was possible to correct some overlooked errors in the previously published biographies. Comparing the biographies of the first historiographers of the Military Frontier, the authors have noticed some very interesting similarities as well as differences. Most of the studied persons were officials of the Military Frontier administration, except for Demian and Hietzinger, who belonged to the highest military council in Vienna, and Krainz, who partly made his career in a military unit. Three of them were prominent members of educational staff in the Military Frontier. Stopfer was a professor at the Military Administration School in Graz, Frass was the principal of all schools in the Karlovac Generalate, and Vaniček was the principal of the Higher Grammar School in Vinkovci. Bach and Krainz served as military judges. Historiographers with most writings relevant to the Military Frontier are Demian, Stopfer and Vaniček. Hietzinger, Kussan, Bach, Hostinek, and Krainz published one seminal work each. While at the beginning the emphasis was on statistics and geography, from the mid-19th century the focus increasingly shifted to historical events. Most authors based themselves on works published before theirs: Hietzinger on Demian, Stopfer on Hietzinger, Frass on Hietzinger and Stopfer, and so on. However, the most interesting discoveries about their personal and professional lives concern the way these were intertwined. Based on the available and collected data, it could be established that seven of the nine mentioned persons lived to be between 74 and 84 years old. Stopfer died the youngest, at the age of 45, and it was not possible to find out Krainz’s date of death. A combination of high age and a long professional career, which implied frequent transfers, created favourable conditions for possible encounters. Between 1828 and 1830, Stopfer and Bach served simultaneously in the Otočac Regiment, Hostinek was a student of Vaniček and then Stopfer, and Vaniček was member of a society whose president was Hietzinger, the Imperial and Royal Geographical Society in Vienna (k. k. Geographische Gesellschaft). Although the authors of this paper have tried to shed as much light as possible on the careers of historiographers whose works have been indispensable guideposts on the path of scholarly knowledge about the Military Frontier as a historical phenomenon, the primary intention was to encourage further research into this understudied historical topic.
On 17 August 1813, five days after Emperor Francis I had formally declared war
on his former ally Napoleon I, Austrian Feldmarschall Lieutenant Radivojević
crossed the Sava on to the French-held ...Illyrian provinces. His detached corps of
8,500 men made up the extreme left wing of the Inner Austrian Army under the
command of Feldzeugmeister Hiller. Radivojević’s Major General Count Nugent
spearheaded the operations in Military Croatia and succeeded in reaching Karlovac
on 21 August and Rijeka only five days later. By mid-September, Austria
was again in complete control of the Karlovac and Banal Frontier. The main prospect
of this very effective Austrian „Blitzkrieg” in the Illyrian provinces had been
twofold. Its first aim was to breach French defences in Military Croatia and, by
connecting to the British naval forces in the Adriatic, to cut off all French communication
between Northeast Italy and Dalmatia. The second aim was to remove
Grenzer officers loyal to the French cause and replace them with native officers
that had crossed to the Austrian side in 1809. Also, 12,000 muskets were kept
in preparation to rearm the population. The Hofkriegsrat in Vienna had little or
no doubt about the traditional loyalty of the Grenzer towards the Habsburg Monarchy,
but was convinced this loyalty needed to be stirred up by former officers
they trusted. It did not expect spontaneous uprisings of the rank and file. Events
that occurred in the Karlovac Generalcy prior to Nugent’s arrival confirmed this
view of the Austrian Supreme Command. In the Slunj Regiment, pro-Austrian
Captain Liebrich had effectively sabotaged defensive measures of French General
Jeanin and personally took care of the defection of Grenzer to the Austrian side.
As a result of his activities, Nugent was welcomed in Karlovac with open arms
by a battalion of Slunj Grenzer ready to be sworn in and join his forces. Liebrich
thereupon went to Ogulin to win over the Ogulin Grenzer as well, and after that
supervised the incorporation of the Otočac and Lika Regiment, Senj and Karlobag.
In a report to Vienna, Liebrich mentioned the indecisiveness of the Grenzer
caused by their fear of the „invincible” French, thus confirming its suspicions.
An Austrian corps of 2,800 men led by Mayor General Tomašić crossed into Dalmatia
on 26 October. Tomašić was confident his campaign would go smoothly
thanks to three decisive factors. The first factor that played into his hand was the absence of a united French High Command. Consequently, General Roize secured
his defence around Zadar, General de Montrichard concentrated too much on
Dubrovnik and General Gauthier on Kotor. In the second place Tomašić expected
an insurrection of dissatisfied Dalmatians that would be channelled by Colonello
Danese, and thirdly he counted on the defection of „enemy forces, especially Illyrian
regiments”. In accordance with that last factor, secret agreements had been
made with pro-Austrian officers
During the second half of the 18th century the Court in Vienna gave special support to one specific economic branch of the Croatian Kingdom: sericulture. According to mercantilist views of that time, ...the production of raw silk was a significant way of combining inexpensive production with expensive sale of raw silk in order to make large profits and inprove the balance of trade. Sericulture in a way represented the most suitable and optimum combination of the Frontier's military and agricultural obligations on the one hand and high economic politics of the Monarchy on the other. Due to this, sericulture is also a specific phenomenon in the Military Frontier as regards initiating economic growth since silk wasn't manufactured for domestic purposes of the Frontier's inhabitants but was exported to other parts of the Monarchy.
Austrijsko je Carstvo Schönbrunnskim mirom od 14. listopada 1809. godine, između ostaloga, ostalo bez polovice svojih hrvatskih zemalja. Istra, Civilna Hrvatska jugozapadno od Save, Banska i ...Karlovačka krajina te Dalmacija sve do Boke Kotorske zajedno sa zapadnom Koruškom, Kranjskom, krajem oko Gorice i Trstom pripojene su Francuskome Carstvu i inkorporirane u takozvane Ilirske pokrajine (Provinces Illyriennes). Iako prvotno sumnjičav prema krajišnicima, zbog njihove stoljetne tradicije ratovanja za kuću Habsburg, Napoleon je na prijedlog prvoga generalnog guvernera tih pokrajina maršala Augustea Marmonta ipak odlučio zadržati vojno-krajiško uređenje četiriju karlovačkih i dvije banske pukovnije. Poziv
bečkih vlasti upućen časnicima tih pukovnija da napuste Vojnu Hrvatsku (Croatie Militaire) pod francuskim zapovjedništvom i prijeđu na austrijsku stranu, na njihovo veliko razočaranje, nije naišao na očekivani odjek. Osim toga, krajišnici su svojim sudjelovanjem u ruskome pohodu 1812. godine dokazali da se isto tako predano mogu
boriti za francuskoga cara kako su to činili i za njegovoga habsburškog prethodnika. Katastrofalnim ishodom te invazije na Rusiju stvorene su okolnosti za novi politički preokret. Nedavno savezništvo cara Franje I. i cara Napoleona ponovno je zamijenilo
suparništvo. Tako je u ljeto 1813. godine krajiška vjernost u Vojnoj Hrvatskoj stavljena na konačnu kušnju. Hoće li tamošnji krajišnici ostati odani novome caru ili će se prikloniti starome? U ovome radu autor opisuje operacije vojnih zborova pod zapovjedništvom podmaršala Radivojevića i general-bojnika Tomašića na području
Vojne Hrvatske odnosno Dalmacije protiv Francuza od sredine kolovoza do početka prosinca 1813. godine. Pritom posebnu pozornost posvećuje stavu najviših vojnih krugova u Beču prema krajiškome patriotizmu i ulozi koja je u tome pogledu pripadala
krajiškim časnicima. Glavna tema koju obrađuje jest opsada Zadra od 3. studenoga do 6. prosinca, tamošnja pobuna Ličkoga bataljuna, sudbine glavnih protagonista ovoga događaja te njegov ideološki i historiografski odjek.
Prikazana su izlaganja Ive Banca, Geerta van Dartela, Branka Horvata, Dušana Bilandžića, Paula Shoupa, Johna Zametice, Roba Aspelagha, Wima Vermeera, Koena Kocha, Maartena Laka i Radovana ...Vukadinovića sa simpozija »Nesigurna budućnost Jugoslavije«; organiziranog na inicijativu nizozemskog instituta za međunarodrie odnose Clingendael. Referati se odnose na pojedine specifične aspekte jugoslavenske krize: začeci i razvoj jugoslavenske koncepcije do 1945.; narodi i religija; ekonomija; poslijeratna povijest; nacionalno pitanje; Bosna i Hercegovina; Vojvodina; Kosovo; pogledi na državu i društvo; odnosi sa Zapadom i Istokom.
Wegen der 1746 erfolgten Umgestaltung der Karlstädter Grenze in Regimenter,
verlor Zengg schließlich seine Stellung als militärischer und behördlicher
Mittelpunkt. Nicht nur als Zengger ...Hauptmannschaft sondern auch als Meeresgrenze.
Unter dem Einfluß der staatswirtschaftlichen Politik des damaligen Kameralismus,
beschloß Maria Theresia das österr. Küstengebiet (Austriaco Littorale)
in eine wirtschaftliche und behördliche Einheit umzubilden. Die Triester Handelsintendanz wurde als oberste Behörde benannt. Sie übte ihre Aufsicht über
diesen neuen Teil der Monarchie mittels einzelner Hauptmann—Amts—Verwaltungen
aus. Im Jahre 1752 entschloß sich Wien, auch Zengg in dieses neue Verwaltungssystem
aufzunehmen. Dies geschah mit der Absicht, daß Zengg sich als Seehandelsstadt, hauptsächlich mit Handel befassen solite. Gleichzeitig solite die ausschließliche Handelsgerichtbarkeit ein für allemal kurzen Prozeß mit dem Tauziehen und der Undeutlichkeit bezüglich des Status dieser Stadt machen. Trotz der neuen, komerziellen Orientierung und des militärischen Schutzes, fehlte es dem Zengger Handel an den nötigen Voraussetzungen um zu einer wirklich erfolgreichen Entfaltung zu kommen. Als man dann 1775 endlich auf weitere merkantilistische Lösungen fur die Staatswirtschaft der Habsburgermonarchie verzichtete, wurde auch die Zengger Hauptmann-Amts-Verwaltung aufgehoben. Die Stadt wurde wieder der Militargrenze zugeteilt, wo sie den Status einer Militärkommunität bekam.
Među privrednim granama koje su u Hrvatskoj Kraljevini uživale posebnu podršku Bečkog Dvora posebno je mjesto pripadalo svilarstu. Riječ je o uzgoju dudova svilca, otpredanju svilenih
čahura u sirovu ...svilu i, znatno manje, o daljnjoj preradi sirove svile u konac ili predivo. Proizvodnja sirove svile prema shvaćanjima merkantilističkih krugova bila je jedan od značajnih načina kako se jeftinom proizvodnjom i skupom prodajom sirove svile ostvaruje
veliki profit i time popravlja trgovinska bilanca. Uzimajući u obzir usku povezanost gospodarskih rješenja marijaterezijanske kameralistike uz organizaciju Vojne krajine, ne iznenađuje činjenica da je Bečki Dvor baš tamo započeo gospodarski eksperiment sa svilom. Svilarstvo je na svoj način predstavljao najprikladniji, najbolji spoj krajiπkih vojnih i poljoprivrednih obveza s jedne strane, i visoke gospodarske politike Monarhije, s druge strane. Svilarstvo
je i po tome svojevrstan fenomen u Vojnoj krajini u proizvodnom poticanju gospodarskog napretka jer se svila nije proizvodila za domaće potrebe krajiškog stanovništva nego se izvozila u ostale dijelove Monarhije. Uzgoj dudova svilca uveden je 1761. godine u Slavonsku krajinu, tri godine kasnije u Varaždinsku krajinu, a između 1772. i 1774. u Bansku krajinu. Svilarstvo se nije, međutim, uvelo samo u Vojnoj krajini. Kraljica Marija Terezija pozvala je patentom u 1763. godinu zemaljsku gospodu, uprave, samostane i općine u drugim zemljama Monarhije da uzgajaju bijele dudove. Proizvodnja svile se do kraja listopada 1800. nalazila pod vojnim nadzorom. Zatim je preπla u ruke Ugarske dvorske komore. Vrijednost proizvodnje kokoša iznosila je četrdesetih godina 19. st. između 150.000 i 200.000 for. Zarada kmetskih i krajiπkih kuća od te proizvodnje bila je vrlo mala i nesigurna. Bila je to vrlo osjetljiva
i rizična kultura, tako da je proizvodnja u nepovoljnim godinama znala pasti na polovicu godišnjeg prosjeka. Iako posao nije tražio velik fizički napor, zato je zahtjevao pažljivu i neprestanu brigu. Za čitav trud i za tolike neugodnosti, na čitavu je kuću u prosjeku otpala
nadnica od jedva 20 kr. na dan. Prerada svilenih buba u filandama činila je drugu fazu u proizvodnji svile. Hrvatska je osamdesetih godina 18. stoljeća imala desetak filanda. Godine 1841. bilo ih je već 46. Što se Civilne Hrvatske tiče je Osijek imao 7 filanda, Križevci tri, Đakovo, Virovitica, Požega, Vukovar, Varaždin i Koprivnica po dva, a Cernik, Irig, Trpinj i Zagreb po jedan. U Vojnoj krajini je bila po jedna filanda u Novoj Gradiški, Oriovcu, Podvinju, Moroviću,
Golubincima, Staroj Pazovi, Zemunu, Glini, Petrinji, Kostajnici, Đurđevcu, Virju, Čazmi, i Garešnici te po dvije u Vinkovcima, Mitrovici i Bjelovaru. Kvaliteta hrvatske svile nije se odlikovala
finoćom i sjajem kao francuska i talijanska, ali zato je bila jača, teža i trajnija. Svilarstvo je napredovalo uglavnom do 1848. godine. Habsburška je Monarhija izgubila Lombardiju koja je do tada prerađivala 90% hrvatske proizvodnje svile. Konačni katastrofalni udarac zadala je 1855. godine bolest dudova svilca. Nepovoljno se odrazila i sve veća konkurencija Francuske, Italije, kasnije i Japana. Svilarstvo u Hrvatskoj počelo je zaostajati i više se nije oporavilo od tih udaraca.
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