We present the results of chemical modeling of complex organic molecules (COMs) under conditions typical for prestellar cores. We utilize an advanced gas-grain astrochemical model with updated ...gas-phase chemistry, with a multilayer approach to ice-surface chemistry and an up-to-date treatment of reactive desorption (RD) based on recent experiments of Minissale et al. With the chemical model, radial profiles of molecules, including COMs, are calculated for the case of the prototypical prestellar core L1544 at the timescales when the modeled depletion factor of CO becomes equal to that observed. We find that COMs can be formed efficiently in L1544 up to the fractional abundances of 10(−10) wrt. total hydrogen nuclei. Abundances of many COMs such as CH3OCH3, HCOOCH3, and others peak at similar radial distances of 2000-4000 au. Gas-phase abundances of COMs depend on the efficiency of RD, which in turn depends on the composition of the outer monolayers of icy mantles. In prestellar cores, the outer monolayers of mantles likely include large fractions of CO and its hydrogenation products, which may increase the efficiency of RD according to Minissale et al., and makes the formation of COMs efficient under conditions typical for prestellar cores, though this assumption is yet to be confirmed experimentally. The hydroxyl radical (OH) appears to play an important role in gas-phase chemistry of COMs, which makes it deserving of further detailed studies.
Context.
Surveys of protoplanetary disks in star-forming regions of similar age revealed significant variations in average disk mass in some regions. For instance, disks in the Orion Nebular Cluster ...(ONC) and Corona Australis (CrA) are on average smaller than disks observed in Lupus, Taurus, Chamaeleon I, or Ophiuchus.
Aims.
In contrast to previous models that studied the truncation of disks at a late stage of their evolution, we investigate whether disks may already be born with systematically smaller disk sizes in more massive star-forming regions as a consequence of higher ionization rates.
Methods.
Assuming various cosmic-ray ionization rates, we computed the resistivities for ambipolar diffusion and Ohmic dissipation with a chemical network, and performed 2D nonideal magnetohydrodynamical protostellar collapse simulations.
Results.
A higher ionization rate leads to stronger magnetic braking, and hence to the formation of smaller disks. Accounting for recent findings that protostars act as forges of cosmic rays and considering only mild attenuation during the collapse phase, we show that a high average cosmic-ray ionization rate in star-forming regions such as the ONC or CrA can explain the detection of smaller disks in these regions.
Conclusions.
Our results show that on average, a higher ionization rate leads to the formation of smaller disks. Smaller disks in regions of similar age can therefore be the consequence of different levels of ionization, and may not exclusively be caused by disk truncation through external photoevaporation. We strongly encourage observations that allow measuring the cosmic-ray ionization degrees in different star-forming regions to test our hypothesis.
ABSTRACT The local cosmic-ray (CR) spectra are calculated for typical characteristic regions of a cold, dense molecular cloud to investigate two mechanisms of dust charging that have, thus far, been ...neglected: the collection of suprathermal CR electrons and protons by grains and photoelectric emission from grains due to the UV radiation generated by CRs. These two mechanisms add to the conventional charging by ambient plasma, produced in the cloud by CRs. We show that the CR-induced photoemission can dramatically modify the charge distribution function for submicron grains. We demonstrate the importance of the obtained results for dust coagulation: while the charging by ambient plasma alone leads to a strong Coulomb repulsion between grains and inhibits their further coagulation, the combination with the photoemission provides optimum conditions for the growth of large dust aggregates in a certain region of the cloud, corresponding to the densities between ∼104 and ∼106 cm−3. The charging effect of CRs is of a generic nature, and is therefore expected to operate not only in dense molecular clouds but also in the upper layers and the outer parts of protoplanetary disks.
The majority of stars are part of gravitationally bound stellar systems, such as binaries. Observations of protobinary systems constrain the conditions that lead to stellar multiplicity and ...subsequent orbital evolution. We report high-angular resolution observations of the circumbinary disk around BHB2007 11, a young binary protostar system. The two protostars are embedded in circumstellar disks that have radii of 2 to 3 astronomical units and probably contain a few Jupiter masses. These systems are surrounded by a complex structure of filaments connecting to the larger circumbinary disk. We also observe accretion and radio jets associated with the protobinary system. The accretion is preferentially onto the lower-mass protostar, consistent with theoretical predictions.
Context. High methanol (CH3OH) deuteration has been revealed in Class 0 protostars with the detection of singly, doubly, and even triply D-substituted forms. Methanol is believed to form during the ...pre-collapse phase via gas-grain chemistry and then eventually injected into the gas when the heating produced by the newly formed protostar sublimates the grain mantles. The molecular deuterium fraction of the warm gas is thus a relic of the cold pre-stellar era and provides hints of the past history of the protostars. Aims. Pre-stellar cores represent the preceding stages in the process of star formation. We aim at measuring methanol deuteration in L1544, a prototypical dense and cold core on the verge of gravitational collapse. The aim is to probe the deuterium fractionation process while the “frozen” molecular reservoir is accumulated onto dust grains. Methods. Using the IRAM 30 m telescope, we mapped the methanol emission in the pre-stellar core L1544 and observed singly deuterated methanol (CH2DOH and CH3OD) towards the dust peak of L1544. Non-LTE radiative transfer modelling was performed on three CH3OH emissions lines at 96.7 GHz, using a Bonnor–Ebert sphere as a model for the source. We have also assumed a centrally decreasing abundance profile to take the molecule freeze-out in the inner core into account. The column density of CH2DOH was derived assuming LTE excitation and optically thin emission. Results. The CH3OH emission has a highly asymmetric morphology, resembling a non-uniform ring surrounding the dust peak, where CO is mainly frozen onto dust grains. The observations provide an accurate measure of methanol deuteration in the cold pre-stellar gas. The derived abundance ratio is CH2DOH/CH3OH = 0.10 ± 0.03, which is significantly smaller than the ones found in low-mass Class 0 protostars and smaller than the deuterium fraction measured in other molecules towards L1544. The singly-deuterated form CH3OD was not detected at 3σ sensitivity of 7 mK km s-1, yielding a lower limit of CH2DOH/CH3OD ≥ 10, consistent with previous measurements towards Class 0 protostars. Conclusions. The low deuterium fractionation observed in L1544 and the morphology of the CH3OH emission suggest that we are mainly tracing the outer parts of the core, where CO just started to freeze-out onto dust grains.
Context.
Carbon fractionation has been studied from a theoretical point of view with different models of time-dependent chemistry, including both isotope-selective photodissociation and ...low-temperature isotopic exchange reactions.
Aims.
Recent chemical models predict that isotopic exchange reactions may lead to a depletion of
13
C in nitrile-bearing species, with
12
C/
13
C ratios two times higher than the elemental abundance ratio of 68 in the local interstellar medium. Since the carbon isotopic ratio is commonly used to evaluate the
14
N/
15
N ratios with the double-isotope method, it is important to study carbon fractionation in detail to avoid incorrect assumptions.
Methods.
In this work, we implemented a gas-grain chemical model with new isotopic exchange reactions and investigated their introduction in the context of dense and cold molecular gas. In particular, we investigated the
12
C/
13
C ratios of HNC, HCN, and CN using a grid of models, with temperatures and densities ranging from 10 to 50 K and 2 × 10
3
to 2 × 10
7
cm
−3
, respectively.
Results.
We suggest a possible
13
C exchange through the
13
C + C
3
→
12
C +
13
CC
2
reaction, which does not result in dilution, but rather in
13
C enhancement, for molecules that are formed starting from atomic carbon. This effect is efficient in a range of time between the formation of CO and its freeze-out on grains. Furthermore, the parameter-space exploration shows, on average, that the
12
C/
13
C ratios of nitriles are predicted to be a factor 0.8–1.9 different from the local
12
C/
13
C of 68 for high-mass star-forming regions. This result also affects the
14
N/
15
N ratio: a value of 330 obtained with the double-isotope method is predicted to vary in the range 260–630, up to 1150, depending on the physical conditions. Finally, we studied the
12
C/
13
C ratios of nitriles by varying the cosmic-ray ionisation rate,
ζ
: the
12
C/
13
C ratios increase with
ζ
because of secondary photons and cosmic-ray reactions.
Context. We study the evolution of chemical-abundance gradients using dynamical and static models of starless cores. Aims. We aim to quantify if the chemical abundance gradients given by a dynamical ...model of core collapse, which includes time-dependent changes in density and temperature, differ greatly from abundances derived from static models where the density and temperature structures of the core are kept fixed as the chemistry evolves. Methods. We developed a new one-dimensional spherically symmetric hydrodynamics code that couples the hydrodynamics equations with a comprehensive time-dependent gas–grain chemical model, including deuterium and spin-state chemistry, and radiative transfer calculations to derive self-consistent time-dependent chemical-abundance gradients. We apply the code to model the collapse of a starless core up to the point when the infall flow becomes supersonic. Results. The abundances predicted by the dynamical and static models are almost identical at early times during the quiescent phase of core evolution. After the onset of core collapse, the results from the two models begin to diverge: at late times the static model generally underestimates abundances in the high-density regions near the core center, and overestimates them in the outer parts of the core. Deuterated species are clearly overproduced by the static model near the center of the model core. On the other hand, simulated lines of NH3 and N2H+ are brighter in the dynamical model because they originate in the central part of the core where the dynamical model predicts higher abundances than the static model. The reason for these differences is that the static model ignores the history of the density and temperature profiles which has a large impact on the abundances, and therefore on the molecular lines. Our results also indicate that the use of a very limited chemical network in hydrodynamical simulations may lead to an overestimate of the collapse timescale, and in some cases may prevent the collapse altogether. Limiting the set of molecular coolants has a similar effect. In our model, most of the line cooling near the center of the core is due to HCN, CO, and NO. Conclusions. Our results show that the use of a static physical model is not a reliable method of simulating chemical abundances in starless cores after the onset of gravitational collapse. The abundance differences between the dynamical and static models translate to large differences in line emission profiles, showing that the difference between the models is at the observable level. The adoption of complex chemistry and a comprehensive set of cooling molecules is necessary to model the collapse adequately.
The temperature of interstellar dust particles is of great importance to astronomers. It plays a crucial role in the thermodynamics of interstellar clouds, because of the gas-dust collisional ...coupling. It is also a key parameter in astrochemical studies that governs the rate at which molecules form on dust. In 3D (magneto)hydrodynamic simulations often a simple expression for the dust temperature is adopted, because of computational constraints, while astrochemical modelers tend to keep the dust temperature constant over a large range of parameter space. Our aim is to provide an easy-to-use parametric expression for the dust temperature as a function of visual extinction (AV) and to shed light on the critical dependencies of the dust temperature on the grain composition. We obtain an expression for the dust temperature by semi-analytically solving the dust thermal balance for different types of grains and compare to a collection of recent observational measurements. We also explore the effect of ices on the dust temperature. Our results show that a mixed carbonaceous-silicate type dust with a high carbon volume fraction matches the observations best. We find that ice formation allows the dust to be warmer by up to 15% at high optical depths (AV> 20 mag) in the interstellar medium. Our parametric expression for the dust temperature is presented as Td = 11 + 5.7 × tanh(0.61 − log 10(AV) χuv1/5.9, where χuv is in units of the Draine (1978, ApJS, 36, 595) UV field.
The ratio between the two stable isotopes of nitrogen, 14N and 15N, is well measured in the terrestrial atmosphere (~272), and for the pre-solar nebula (~441, deduced from the solar wind). ...Interestingly, some pristine solar system materials show enrichments in 15N with respect to the pre-solar nebula value. However, it is not yet clear if and how these enrichments are linked to the past chemical history because we have only a limited number of measurements in dense star-forming regions. In this respect, dense cores, which are believed to be the precursors of clusters and also contain intermediate- and high-mass stars, are important targets because the solar system was probably born within a rich stellar cluster, and such clusters are formed in high-mass star-forming regions. The number of observations in such high-mass dense cores has remained limited so far. In this work, we show the results of IRAM-30 m observations of the J = 1−0 rotational transition of the molecules HCN and HNC and their 15N-bearing counterparts towards 27 intermediate- and high-mass dense cores that are divided almost equally into three evolutionary categories: high-mass starless cores, high-mass protostellar objects, and ultra-compact Hii regions. We have also observed the DNC(2–1) rotational transition in order to search for a relation between the isotopic ratios D/H and 14N/15N. We derive average 14N/15N ratios of 359 ± 16 in HCN and of 438 ± 21 in HNC, with a dispersion of about 150–200. We find no trend of the 14N/15N ratio with evolutionary stage. This result agrees with what has been found for N2H+ and its isotopologues in the same sources, although the 14N/15N ratios from N2H+ show a higher dispersion than in HCN/HNC, and on average, their uncertainties are larger as well. Moreover, we have found no correlation between D/H and 14N/15N in HNC. These findings indicate that (1) the chemical evolution does not seem to play a role in the fractionation of nitrogen, and that (2) the fractionation of hydrogen and nitrogen in these objects is not related.
Context. Polarized continuum emission at millimeter-to-submillimeter wavelengths is usually attributed to thermal emission from dust grains aligned through radiative torques with the magnetic field. ...However, recent theoretical work has shown that under specific conditions polarization may arise from self-scattering of thermal emission and by radiation fields from a nearby stellar object. Aims. We use multi-frequency polarization observations of a circumbinary disk to investigate how the polarization properties change at distinct frequency bands. Our goal is to discern the main mechanism responsible for the polarization through comparison between our observations and model predictions for each of the proposed mechanisms. Methods. We used the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array to perform full polarization observations at 97.5 GHz (Band 3), 233 GHz (Band 6) and 343.5 GHz (Band 7). The ALMA data have a mean spatial resolution of 28 AU. The target is the Class I object BHB07-11, which is the youngest object in the Barnard 59 protocluster. Complementary Karl G. Jansky Very Large Array observations at 34.5 GHz were also performed and revealed a binary system at centimetric continuum emission within the disk. Results. We detect an extended and structured polarization pattern that is remarkably consistent between the three bands. The distribution of polarized intensity resembles a horseshoe shape with polarization angles following this morphology. From the spectral index between Bands 3 and 7, we derived a dust opacity index β ~ 1 consistent with maximum grain sizes larger than expected to produce self-scattering polarization in each band. The polarization morphology and the polarization levels do not match predictions from self-scattering. On the other hand, marginal correspondence is seen between our maps and predictions from a radiation field model assuming the brightest binary component as main radiation source. Previous molecular line data from BHB07-11 indicates disk rotation. We used the DustPol module of the ARTIST radiative transfer tool to produce synthetic polarization maps from a rotating magnetized disk model assuming combined poloidal and toroidal magnetic field components. The magnetic field vectors (i.e., the polarization vectors rotated by 90°) are better represented by a model with poloidal magnetic field strength about three times the toroidal one. Conclusions. The similarity of our polarization patterns among the three bands provides a strong evidence against self-scattering and radiation fields. On the other hand, our data are reasonably well reproduced by a model of disk with toroidal magnetic field components slightly smaller than poloidal ones. The residual is likely to be due to the internal twisting of the magnetic field due to the binary system dynamics, which is not considered in our model.
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