Cool main-sequence, subgiant, and red giant stars all show solar-like oscillations, pulsations that are excited and intrinsically damped by near-surface convection. Many overtones are typically ...excited to observable amplitudes, giving a rich spectrum of detectable modes. These modes provide a wealth of information on fundamental stellar properties. However, the radial velocity (RV) shifts induced by these oscillations can also be problematic when searching for low-mass, long-period planets; this is because their amplitudes are large enough to completely mask such minute planetary signals. Here we show how fine-tuning exposure times to the stellar parameters can help efficiently average out the solar-like, oscillation-induced shifts. To reduce the oscillation signal to the RV precision commensurate with an Earth analog, we find that for cool, low-mass stars (near spectral type K), the necessary exposure times may be as short as ∼4 minutes, while for hotter, higher-mass stars (near spectral type F, or slightly evolved), the required exposure times can be longer than 100 minutes. We provide guideline exposure durations required to suppress the total observed amplitude due to oscillations to a level of 0.1 m s−1, and a level corresponding to the Earth-analog reflex amplitude for the star. Owing to the intrinsic stochastic variability of the oscillations, we recommend in practice choosing short exposure durations at the telescope and then averaging over those exposures later, as guided by our predictions. To summarize, as we enter an era of 0.1 m s−1 instrumental precision, it is critical to tailor our observing strategies to the stellar properties.
KELT-9 b, the hottest known exoplanet, with
T
eq
~ 4400 K, is the archetype of a new planet class known as ultra-hot Jupiters. These exoplanets are presumed to have an atmosphere dominated by neutral ...and ionized atomic species. In particular, H
α
and H
β
Balmer lines have been detected in the KELT-9 b upper atmosphere, suggesting that hydrogen is filling the planetary Roche lobe and escaping from the planet. In this work, we detected
δ
Scuti-type stellar pulsation (with a period
P
puls
= 7.54 ± 0.12 h) and studied the Rossiter-McLaughlin effect (finding a spin-orbit angle
λ
= −85.01° ± 0.23°) prior to focussing on the Balmer lines (H
α
to H
ζ
) in the optical transmission spectrum of KELT-9 b. Our HARPS-N data show significant absorption for H
α
to H
δ
. The precise line shapes of the H
α
, H
β
, and H
γ
absorptions allow us to put constraints on the thermospheric temperature. Moreover, the mass loss rate, and the excited hydrogen population of KELT-9 b are also constrained, thanks to a retrieval analysis performed with a new atmospheric model. We retrieved a thermospheric temperature of
T
= 13 200
−720
+800
K and a mass loss rate of
Ṁ
= 10
12.8±0.3
g s
−1
when the atmosphere was assumed to be in hydrodynamical expansion and in local thermodynamic equilibrium (LTE). Since the thermospheres of hot Jupiters are not expected to be in LTE, we explored atmospheric structures with non-Boltzmann equilibrium for the population of the excited hydrogen. We do not find strong statistical evidence in favor of a departure from LTE. However, our non-LTE scenario suggests that a departure from the Boltzmann equilibrium may not be sufficient to explain the retrieved low number densities of the excited hydrogen. In non-LTE, Saha equilibrium departure via photo-ionization, is also likely to be necessary to explain the data.
Probing the trajectory of a transiting planet across the disk of its star through the analysis of its Rossiter-McLaughlin effect can be used to measure the differential rotation of the host star and ...true obliquity of the system. Highly misaligned systems could be particularly conducive to these measurements, which is why we reanalyzed the HARPS transit spectra of WASP-8b using the Rossiter-McLaughlin effect reloaded (reloaded RM) technique. This approach allows us to isolate the local stellar CCF emitted by the planet-occulted regions. As a result we identified a ~35% variation in the local CCF contrast along the transit chord, which might trace a deepening of the stellar lines from the equator to the poles. Whatever its origin, such an effect cannot be detected when analyzing the RV centroids of the disk-integrated CCFs through a traditional velocimetric analysis of the RM effect. Consequently this effect injected a significant bias into the results obtained by Queloz et al. (2010) for the projected rotational velocity veqsini⋆ (1.59+0.08-0.09 km s-1) and the sky-projected obliquity λ (–123.0+3.4-4.4°). Using our technique, we measured these values to be veqsini⋆ = 1.90 ± 0.05 km s-1 and λ = –143.0+1.6-1.5°. We found no compelling evidence for differential rotation of the star, although there are hints that WASP-8 is pointing away from us with the stellar poles rotating about 25% slower than the equator. Measurements at higher accuracy during ingress and egress will be required to confirm this result. In contrast to the traditional analysis of the RM effect, the reloaded RM technique directly extracts the local stellar CCFs, allowing us to analyze their shape and to measure their RV centroids, unbiased by variations in their contrast or FWHM.
Detecting and confirming terrestrial planets is incredibly difficult due to their tiny size and mass relative to Sun-like host stars. However, recent instrumental advancements are making the ...detection of Earth-like exoplanets technologically feasible. For example, Kepler and TESS photometric precision means we can identify Earth-sized candidates (and PLATO in the future will add many long-period candidates to the list), while spectrographs such as ESPRESSO and EXPRES (with an aimed radial velocity precision RV near 10 cm s − 1 ) mean we will soon reach the instrumental precision required to confirm Earth-mass planets in the habitable zones of Sun-like stars. However, many astrophysical phenomena on the surfaces of these host stars can imprint signatures on the stellar absorption lines used to detect the Doppler wobble induced by planetary companions. The result is stellar-induced spurious RV shifts that can mask or mimic planet signals. This review provides a brief overview of how stellar surface magnetoconvection and oscillations can impact low-mass planet confirmation and the best-tested strategies to overcome this astrophysical noise. These noise reduction strategies originate from a combination of empirical motivation and a theoretical understanding of the underlying physics. The most recent predications indicate that stellar oscillations for Sun-like stars may be averaged out with tailored exposure times, while granulation may need to be disentangled by inspecting its imprint on the stellar line profile shapes. Overall, the literature suggests that Earth-analog detection should be possible, with the correct observing strategy and sufficient data collection.
We present the analysis of TESS optical photometry of WASP-121b, which reveals the phase curve of this transiting ultra-hot Jupiter. Its hotspot is located at the sub-stellar point, showing ...inefficient heat transport from the dayside (2870 ± 50 K) to the nightside (<2500 K at 3
σ
) at the altitudes probed by TESS. The TESS eclipse depth, measured at the shortest wavelength to date for WASP-121b, confirms the strong deviation from blackbody planetary emission. Our atmospheric retrieval on the complete emission spectrum supports the presence of a temperature inversion, which can be explained by the presence of VO and possibly TiO and FeH. The strong planetary emission at short wavelengths could arise from an H
−
continuum.
When a planet transits its host star, it blocks regions of the stellar surface from view; this causes a distortion of the spectral lines and a change in the line-of-sight (LOS) velocities, known as ...the Rossiter-McLaughlin (RM) effect. Since the LOS velocities depend, in part, on the stellar rotation, the RM waveform is sensitive to the star-planet alignment (which provides information on the system’s dynamical history). We present a new RM modelling technique that directly measures the spatially-resolved stellar spectrum behind the planet. This is done by scaling the continuum flux of the (HARPS) spectra by the transit light curve, and then subtracting the in- from the out-of-transit spectra to isolate the starlight behind the planet. This technique does not assume any shape for the intrinsic local profiles. In it, we also allow for differential stellar rotation and centre-to-limb variations in the convective blueshift. We apply this technique to HD 189733 and compare to 3D magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) simulations. We reject rigid body rotation with high confidence (>99% probability), which allows us to determine the occulted stellar latitudes and measure the stellar inclination. In turn, we determine both the sky-projected (λ ≈ −0.4 ± 0.2°) and true 3D obliquity (ψ ≈ 7+12-4°). We also find good agreement with the MHD simulations, with no significant centre-to-limb variations detectable in the local profiles. Hence, this technique provides a new powerful tool that can probe stellar photospheres, differential rotation, determine 3D obliquities, and remove sky-projection biases in planet migration theories. This technique can be implemented with existing instrumentation, but will become even more powerful with the next generation of high-precision radial velocity spectrographs.
WASP-52b is a low-density hot Jupiter orbiting a moderately active K2V star. Previous low-resolution studies have revealed a cloudy atmosphere and found atomic Na above the cloud deck. Here we report ...on the detection of excess absorption at the Na doublet, the H
α
line, and the K D
1
line. We derived a high-resolution transmission spectrum based on three transits of WASP-52b, observed with the ultra-stable, high-resolution spectrograph ESPRESSO at the Very Large Telescope array. We measured a line contrast of 1.09 ± 0.16% for Na D
1
, 1.31 ± 0.13% for Na D
2
, 0.86 ± 0.13% for H
α
, and 0.46 ± 0.13% for K D
1
, with a line FWHM range of 11–22 km s
−1
. We also found that the velocity shift of these detected lines during the transit is consistent with the planet’s orbital motion, thus confirming their planetary origin. We did not observe any significant net blueshift or redshift that could be attributed to planetary winds. We used activity indicator lines as control but found no excess absorption. However, we did notice signatures arising from the Center-to-Limb variation (CLV) and the Rossiter-McLaughlin (RM) effect at these control lines. This highlights the importance of the CLV + RM correction in correctly deriving the transmission spectrum, which, if not corrected, could resemble or cancel out planetary absorption in certain cases. WASP-52b is the second non-ultra-hot Jupiter to show excess H
α
absorption after HD 189733b. Future observations targeting non-ultra-hot Jupiters that show H
α
could help reveal the relation between stellar activity and the heating processes in the planetary upper atmosphere.
Stellar surface magnetoconvection (granulation) creates asymmetries in the observed stellar absorption lines that can subsequently manifest themselves as spurious radial velocities (RVs) shifts. In ...turn, this can then mask the Doppler reflex motion induced by orbiting planets on their host stars and represents a particular challenge for determining the masses of low-mass, long-period planets. Herein, we study this impact by creating Sun-as-a-star observations that encapsulate the granulation variability expected from 3D magnetohydrodynamic simulations. These Sun-as-a-star model observations are in good agreement with empirical observations of the Sun but may underestimate the total variability relative to the quiet Sun due to the increased magnetic field strength in our models. We find numerous line profile characteristics that linearly correlate with the disk-integrated convection-induced velocities. Removing the various correlations with the line bisector, equivalent width, and the Vasy indicator may reduce ∼50%-60% of the granulation noise in the measured velocities. We also find that simultaneous photometry may be a key diagnostic, as our proxy for photometric brightness also allowed us to remove ∼50% of the granulation-induced RV noise. These correlations and granulation-noise mitigations break down in the presence of low instrumental resolution and/or increased stellar rotation, as both act to smooth the observed line profile asymmetries.
ABSTRACT Observations of the Rossiter-McLaughlin (RM) effect provide information on star-planet alignments, which can inform planetary migration and evolution theories. Here, we go beyond the ...classical RM modeling and explore the impact of a convective blueshift that varies across the stellar disk and non-Gaussian stellar photospheric profiles. We simulated an aligned hot Jupiter with a four-day orbit about a Sun-like star and injected center-to-limb velocity (and profile shape) variations based on radiative 3D magnetohydrodynamic simulations of solar surface convection. The residuals between our modeling and classical RM modeling were dependent on the intrinsic profile width and v sin i; the amplitude of the residuals increased with increasing v sin i and with decreasing intrinsic profile width. For slowly rotating stars the center-to-limb convective variation dominated the residuals (with amplitudes of 10 s of cm s−1 to ∼1 m s−1); however, for faster rotating stars the dominant residual signature was due a non-Gaussian intrinsic profile (with amplitudes from 0.5 to 9 m s−1). When the impact factor was 0, neglecting to account for the convective center-to-limb variation led to an uncertainty in the obliquity of ∼10°-20°, even though the true v sin i was known. Additionally, neglecting to properly model an asymmetric intrinsic profile had a greater impact for more rapidly rotating stars (e.g., v sin i = 6 km s−1) and caused systematic errors on the order of ∼20° in the measured obliquities. Hence, neglecting the impact of stellar surface convection may bias star-planet alignment measurements and consequently theories on planetary migration and evolution.
Context.
The solar telescope connected to HARPS-N has been observing the Sun since the summer of 2015. Such a high-cadence, long-baseline data set is crucial for understanding spurious ...radial-velocity signals induced by our Sun and by the instrument. On the instrumental side, this data set allowed us to detect sub- m s
−1
systematics that needed to be corrected for.
Aims.
The goals of this manuscript are to (i) present a new data reduction software for HARPS-N, (ii) demonstrate the improvement brought by this new software during the first three years of the HARPS-N solar data set, and (iii) release all the obtained solar products, from extracted spectra to precise radial velocities.
Methods.
To correct for the instrumental systematics observed in the data reduced with the current version of the HARPS-N data reduction software (DRS version 3.7), we adapted the newly available ESPRESSO DRS (version 2.2.3) to HARPS-N and developed new optimised recipes for the spectrograph. We then compared the first three years of HARPS-N solar data reduced with the current and new DRS.
Results.
The most significant improvement brought by the new DRS is a strong decrease in the day-to-day radial-velocity scatter, from 1.27 to 1.07 m s
−1
; this is thanks to a more robust method to derive wavelength solutions, but also to the use of calibrations closer in time. The newly derived solar radial-velocities are also better correlated with the chromospheric activity level of the Sun in the long term, with a Pearson correlation coefficient of 0.93 compared to 0.77 before, which is expected from our understanding of stellar signals. Finally, we also discuss how HARPS-N spectral ghosts contaminate the measurement of the calcium activity index, and we present an efficient technique to derive an index free of instrumental systematics.
Conclusions.
This paper presents a new data reduction software for HARPS-N and demonstrates its improvements, mainly in terms of radial-velocity precision, when applied to the first three years of the HARPS-N solar data set. Those newly reduced solar data, representing an unprecedented time series of 34 550 high-resolution spectra and precise radial velocities, are released alongside this paper. Those data are crucial to understand stellar activity signals in solar-type stars further and develop the mitigating techniques that will allow us to detect other Earths.
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