BACKGROUND: The Andes-Amazon basin of Peru and Bolivia is one of the most data-poor, biologically rich, and rapidly changing areas of the world. Conservation scientists agree that this area hosts ...extremely high endemism, perhaps the highest in the world, yet we know little about the geographic distributions of these species and ecosystems within country boundaries. To address this need, we have developed conservation data on endemic biodiversity (~800 species of birds, mammals, amphibians, and plants) and terrestrial ecological systems (~90; groups of vegetation communities resulting from the action of ecological processes, substrates, and/or environmental gradients) with which we conduct a fine scale conservation prioritization across the Amazon watershed of Peru and Bolivia. We modelled the geographic distributions of 435 endemic plants and all 347 endemic vertebrate species, from existing museum and herbaria specimens at a regional conservation practitioner's scale (1:250,000-1:1,000,000), based on the best available tools and geographic data. We mapped ecological systems, endemic species concentrations, and irreplaceable areas with respect to national level protected areas. RESULTS: We found that sizes of endemic species distributions ranged widely (< 20 km² to > 200,000 km²) across the study area. Bird and mammal endemic species richness was greatest within a narrow 2500-3000 m elevation band along the length of the Andes Mountains. Endemic amphibian richness was highest at 1000-1500 m elevation and concentrated in the southern half of the study area. Geographical distribution of plant endemism was highly taxon-dependent. Irreplaceable areas, defined as locations with the highest number of species with narrow ranges, overlapped slightly with areas of high endemism, yet generally exhibited unique patterns across the study area by species group. We found that many endemic species and ecological systems are lacking national-level protection; a third of endemic species have distributions completely outside of national protected areas. Protected areas cover only 20% of areas of high endemism and 20% of irreplaceable areas. Almost 40% of the 91 ecological systems are in serious need of protection (= < 2% of their ranges protected). CONCLUSIONS: We identify for the first time, areas of high endemic species concentrations and high irreplaceability that have only been roughly indicated in the past at the continental scale. We conclude that new complementary protected areas are needed to safeguard these endemics and ecosystems. An expansion in protected areas will be challenged by geographically isolated micro-endemics, varied endemic patterns among taxa, increasing deforestation, resource extraction, and changes in climate. Relying on pre-existing collections, publically accessible datasets and tools, this working framework is exportable to other regions plagued by incomplete conservation data.
Accurate extent of occurrence (EOO) estimates are essential for reliable conservation assessments. Recent studies suggest that current EOO maps often significantly overestimate range sizes of birds, ...particularly for narrow-ranging, threatened and ecological specialist species. Such species may therefore be at danger of being falsely overlooked by conservation assessments. Using species distribution modeling combined with ‘expert’ review and according corrections of inductive models, we estimated historic range sizes of 15 Bolivian endemics, which were compared to BirdLife International’s 2011 EOO estimates. The same comparisons were made for 65 additional species modeled by Young et al. (Auk 126:554–565, 2009) to corroborate the general validity of our results. Species distributions were modeled deductively for eight, with a hybrid approach for six and inductively for one species. For 67 % of Bolivian endemics, EOO estimates were 1.48–4.22 times larger than our estimates (1.75–4.33 larger for 89 % of the species in Young et al.). Overestimation can largely be attributed to inclusion of areas outside a species’ elevational range and of portions of ecoregions or extensive habitat areas uninhabited by a species. For 33 % of Bolivian endemics (all threatened species), EOO estimates were 21.2–75.3 % smaller than our estimates (30.3–72.2 % smaller for 11 % of the species in Young et al.). This can partly be attributed to more sophisticated range size analyses for threatened species by BirdLife, differences between historic versus current range sizes, and overly conservative EOO estimates. EOO definition and estimates are in serious need of improvement. Exclusion of discontinuities within overall distributions of species needs to be applied rigorously at small spatial scales, using spatially explicit environmental data such as digital elevation models and ecosystem classifications. Incorporating national expert knowledge into range size estimation can be similarly important for reducing overestimation. We recommend prioritizing species with EOO estimates of <200,000 km² for a revision of these estimates.
A new species of Clelia Fitzinger, 1826, is described on the basis of 37 specimens. It differs from all other Clelia by having two loreals and a higher number (21 vs. 19) of dorsal scale rows in the ...neck region. The species is probably endemic to the Bolivian inter-Andean dry valleys.
Seven species of Dipsas occur within Bolivia. On the basis of new material, we revise D. chaparensis, D. peruana, and D. variegata. We review D. i. cisticeps and consider it to be a subspecies of D. ...bucephala. We transfer D. boettgeri, D. latifrontalis, and D. polylepis to the synonymy of D. peruana. We consider D. neivai and populations of D. variegata from Bolivia, Brazil, and Peru to be conspecific with Guianan and Venezuelan D. variegata. On the other hand, we recognize D. trinitatis Parker as a morphologically distinct, full species rather than a subspecies of D. variegata. We refer Leptognathus robusta Müller to the synonymy of D. oreas rather than D. variegata. Alizarin red staining reveals calcification patterns of snake hemipenes and is recommended as a modification of techniques used to prepare these organs. Characters of visceral morphology improve our understanding of dipsadine relationships. As in most snakes, male Dipsas usually have higher subcaudal counts than females. On the other hand, species of Dipsas either have reverse ventral count dimorphism or their ventral counts are not dimorphic.
Understanding large-scale patterns of beta- and alpha diversity is essential for ecoregional conservation planning. Using the 110,000 km
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shallow basin of the Beni savannas of northeastern Bolivia, ...we examined the spatial patterns of biological diversity of four taxonomic groups (bats, palms, reptiles, and amphibians). Since the Beni savannas are shaped by cycles of drought and flood, and farming, which, together with topography, create a mosaic of sub-ecoregions from Amazonian forests to aquatic vegetation, we hypothesize that this landscape heterogeneity results in a high turnover in species composition across sub-ecoregions. We compiled species lists for each taxon and modeled the potential distribution of each species using the algorithm MaxEnt. For those species whose modeled potential distribution produced incongruous results, we built presence-absence maps. Using the potential distribution maps, we estimated the lists of species for each sub-ecoregion. In order to establish present similarities in species composition between sub-ecoregions, we constructed dendrograms using cluster analysis of presence-absence matrices. The sub-ecoregions associated with the Moxos (southern part of the Beni savannas) were richer than the sub-ecoregions composing the Beni Cerrado (northern part of the Beni savannas). Centers of species richness were detected in the savanna-type sub-ecoregions (bats and reptiles) or associated with the Várzea forests (palms and amphibians). A south-north gradient in the pattern of distribution of four taxonomic groups was also recorded. The results suggest that the patterns of biological diversity partially respond to the mosaic arrangement of the landscape. Future exercises on conservation planning will point to total target areas about 5,000 km². This area seems to be sufficient to contain the biological richness of the region at least for the taxa analyzed.
Amphibians constitute one of the most threatened species group worldwide. Because they are affected by various threats such as habitat destruction, chytrid fungus, climate change, invasive species ...and human use, different approaches are needed for their conservation. In this paper we examine patterns of alpha diversity, endemism and threatened species distributions of amphibians in Bolivia. We modeled distribution data using ecological niche modeling implemented with MaxEnt (Maximum Entropy Modeling). In contrast with previous studies, we validated each individual map with specialists. Important areas for amphibian conservation were defined by overlapping species richness, endemism richness and concentration of threatened species, and then excluding all unsuitable habitats. Our goal was to identify high-priority sites for the conservation of amphibians in Bolivia. We discuss a place-based strategy (identification of priority areas) and the need for further non place-based strategies. We highlight the importance of strengthening two existing protected areas that together host up to 40% of Bolivia’s threatened amphibian species, and we propose alternative strategies such as ex situ conservation for those species not covered by the priority areas. Bolivia’s General Directorate for Biodiversity and Protected Areas (in Spanish, Dirección General de Biodiversidad y Áreas Protegidas (DGBAP)) and Bolivian experts are jointly using the here presented results to define a national strategy of amphibian conservation for safeguarding this important element of Bolivia’s biodiversity.
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