The increasing number of invasive pests and pathogens entering North America and Europe indicate that the threat which they pose to forests is increasing concurrently with climate change and ...globalisation. To date research has mainly focussed on the protection of trees of economic importance. In most countries the major portion of research costs tend to be borne by the state with governments funding tree health research and the implementation of statutory work (risk assessment, border inspection and surveillance), whilst commercial enterprises cover the costs of ongoing management of established pests and pathogens. The costs of responding to new outbreaks tend to be shared with government or regional authorities organising initial response but owners covering subsequent operational costs without state compensation. However in recent years a number of major epidemics have devastated natural ecosystems and landscapes valued both for timber and for their wider benefits to the general public. Against this background it is helpful to consider more explicitly the consequences of pests and pathogens for the full range of ecosystem services. Biodiversity was originally perceived to be an ecosystem service but is now recognised as fundamental in supporting ecological function. Many ecosystem services are uncosted and enjoyed by a range of stakeholders raising important questions about who is responsible for measures to protect tree health. We present data here on the new outbreaks which have occurred in the UK and, as an example of rapid spread of a disease, on the development of
Hymenoscyphus fraxineus
in the UK over the last 3 years. These data indicate that tree pests and diseases represent a major contemporary problem to which the ecosystem services concept, and its associated implications for cost sharing, can move forward our approach to prevention and outbreak management and may improve the outcomes of international measures to minimise the man-mediated movement and impacts of pests and pathogens.
Abstract
California has large and diverse biomass resources and provides a pertinent example of how biomass use is changing and needs to change, in the face of climate mitigation policies. As in ...other areas of the world, California needs to optimize its use of biomass and waste to meet environmental and socioeconomic objectives. We used a systematic review to assess biomass use pathways in California and the associated impacts on climate and air quality. Biomass uses included the production of renewable fuels, electricity, biochar, compost, and other marketable products. For those biomass use pathways recently developed, information is available on the effects—usually beneficial—on greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and there is some, but less, published information on the effects on criteria pollutants. Our review identifies 34 biomass use pathways with beneficial impacts on either GHG or pollutant emissions, or both—the “good.” These included combustion of forest biomass for power and conversion of livestock‐associated biomass to biogas by anaerobic digestion. The review identified 13 biomass use pathways with adverse impacts on GHG emissions, criteria pollutant emissions, or both—the “bad.” Wildfires are an example of one out of eight pathways which were found to be bad for both climate and air quality, while only two biomass use pathways reduced GHG emissions relative to an identified counterfactual but had adverse air quality impacts. Issues of high interest for the “future” included land management to reduce fire risk, future policies for the dairy industries, and full life‐cycle analysis of biomass production and use.
PM
10 capture by four categories of urban tree canopy of the greater London Authority area estimated using (a) the UFORE model and (b) an adapted UFORE model. Estimates are for 2006 with current and ...2050 PM
10 concentrations and for 2050 meteorology and PM
10 concentrations with five different planting scenarios.
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► London's trees remove between 852 and 2121 tonnes of particulate pollution (PM10) annually. ► Using seasonal rather than hourly inputs has little impact on modelled future PM10 depositions. ► Tree planting in more polluted areas and using street trees has the greatest benefit to air quality. ► Air quality benefits are greatest with a larger proportion of coniferous to broadleaved trees. ► This work is part of the EU BRIDGE project to provide decision support for integrated city design.
Urban green space and particularly the tree canopy have been highlighted as offering a mitigation potential against atmospheric particulate pollution. In this paper current and future particulate (PM
10) deposition to the urban tree canopy of the Greater London Authority (GLA) was estimated. A modelling approach was used based on the Urban Forest Effects Model (UFORE) and a modified version. Here we give evidence showing that these deposition models can be adapted to run from annual mean meteorological and PM
10 concentration data, thus providing a methodology to examine future scenarios.
Depending on the modelling approach, the urban canopy of the GLA is currently estimated to remove between 852 and 2121
tonnes of PM
10 annually; representing between 0.7% and 1.4% of PM
10 from the urban boundary layer. Estimates of PM
10 removal which take into account a planned increased in tree cover, from the current 20% to 30% of the GLA land area, suggest deposition of 1109–2379
tonnes (1.1–2.6% removal) by the year 2050. The evidence provided here suggests that the targeting of tree planting in the most polluted areas of the GLA and particularly the use of street trees which have the greatest exposure to PM
10, would have the greatest benefit to future air quality. The increased deposition would be greatest if a larger proportion of coniferous to broadleaved trees were used at such sites.
•We analysed global planted forest data from 1990 to 2015 as part of FRA 2015.•Forest expansion rate slowing, implications for future wood supply.•Population growth, climate, health impacts ...increasing risks; regional outlooks built.•Grow supply by intensifying existing forests, adapt to climate, manage health better.•Future data capture needs to better split planted and natural forest variables.
This paper focuses on an analysis of planted forests data from the 2015 Forests Resources Assessment of the U.N. Food and Agriculture Organisation (FRA 2015). It forms one of a series of papers in the FRA 2015 special issue of this journal.
While total forest area decreased from 4.28 billion hectares to 3.99 billion hectares from 1990 to 2015, with percent global forest cover dropping from 31.85% to 30.85%, the area of planted forests increased from 167.5 to 277.9 million hectares or 4.06% to 6.95% of total forest area. Increase was most rapid in the temperate zone, and regionally in East Asia, followed by Europe, North America, and Southern and Southeast Asia.
However the annualised rate of increase in area of planted forests slowed in the 2010–2015 period to 1.2%, below the 2.4% rate suggested is needed to supply all of the world’s timber and fibre needs.
The majority of planted forests comprised native species with only 18–19% of the total area being of introduced species. Introduced species were dominant in the southern hemisphere countries of South America, Oceania and Eastern and Southern Africa where industrial forestry is dominant.
Twenty countries accounted for 85% of planted forest area and a different 20 countries for 87% of planted forest roundwood supply. As with forest area, roundwood supply from planted forests also showed an increasing trend although this was based on minimal data. There was a mismatch in composition and rankings of the top 20 countries with top forest area and roundwood production suggesting that there are substantial opportunities to increase roundwood production in the future, especially in China which has the largest area but is currently ranked 3rd in roundwood production.
Outlook statements were developed for the FAO sub regions based on past changes in planted forest area, population growth, and climate and forest health risks to identify key issues for the future. The overall view from this study suggests that climate impacts, especially from extreme climatic events will affect planted forests in the future and that forest health impacts can also be expected to increase. Outlooks vary regionally. Europe and North America are likely to be most concerned with climate and health risks; Asia will experience population pressure that will impact on land availability for new forests and risks from extreme weather events, and will need to make the most of its existing forests; Africa will need to increase planted forest area to offset continuing deforestation and rapid population growth; and Oceania, the Caribbean, Central and South America are likely to be most concerned with climate impacts.
To ensure the continued contribution of planted forests, a number of responses will be required to both maintain existing and also to develop new forests. Intensification of production in existing forests will lessen the need for greater forest areas and offset any land use conflicts related to food security; climate adaptation strategies will need to be developed as a matter of urgency, and forest health focus must remain a priority for research. Establishment of new forests will be eased through greater community and stakeholder engagement. Application of models such as WWF’s New Generation Plantations, which recognises the importance of society and the need to consider the full range of forest products and services within the wider landscape and spectrum of land uses, will be important.
We recommend that to enable deeper analysis related to planted forests future FRA Assessments consider ways to better gather data specific to planted forests such as productivity so that this important component of global forests can be better understood.
The composition and amounts of dust or particulate matter (PM) vary greatly in the atmosphere and particulates can have major adverse impacts on human health. Since PM10 deposition to foliage can ...improve air quality, there have been a number of studies of PM10 amounts on the surface of urban vegetation. Much less is known about PM in agricultural areas, although PM10 can be harmful to vegetation and, for food crops, have the potential to be ingested. Here we have quantified PM across the agricultural landscape of California, measuring the amounts present on the foliage of 18 crops at 21 locations. The amounts of particulates present varied (0.17–6.9 gm-2) and PM loads on leaves in the south and east of the area were higher than those in the northern and westerly locations. Our findings suggest that the amounts of particulates on the surface of agricultural crops can be high; exceeding the usual range of values for urban areas. Our data indicate that agricultural crops grown in regions like California and the Mediterranean where summer rainfall is largely absent and drip rather than spray irrigation is used are more vulnerable to PM accumulation and to any adverse effects resulting from these deposits. Microscopic analysis of PM10 on foliage showed that in these agricultural areas wind-blown soil particles make up 74.2% of the PM10 present; this is thus a very significant source. A small number of microplastic particles (2.2%) were also identified on foliage. We suggest that PM and microplastics could impact food and forage quality and that more work is needed to examine PM deposition to crops and their range of impacts.
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•Little is known on particulate matter deposition and impacts in agriculture.•Particulates (PM10) can be harmful to vegetation and to human health if ingested.•Particulates amount on crops can be high; exceeding the usual range in urban areas.•In agriculture soil & microplastics make up 74.2 and 2.2 % of leaf surface dust.•Dust effects food & forage quality; more work is needed on deposition & impacts.
Forests provide a wide variety of ecosystem services and international conventions and national policies for climate change mitigation and biodiversity conservation recommend forest protection and ...restoration. However, global forest cover continues to decline, and recent evidence suggests deforestation rates are accelerating. Against this background the area of planted forests has increased globally. Recognizing the substantial potential of well-managed forest plantations, the new generation plantations (NGP) platform was launched in 2007. NGP encourages well-managed planted forests in the right places to conserve biodiversity and meet human needs. Here we describe the NGP approach and analyze data and information from NGP participants and others over 10 years. This shows that NGP participants are responsible for c.11.1 million ha of land, much of it previously degraded or abandoned; 43% is managed as timber plantations, with the remainder being wildlife reserves, restored natural forest, grassland and agriculture. NGP case studies illustrate a range of biodiversity, conservation and socio-economic achievements. These achievements, considered together with future projections of timber demand and of the land available for restoration to tree cover, demonstrate the potential of well-managed plantations to protect natural forests, provide timber, conserve biodiversity and mitigate climate change. The NGP concept works in a variety of countries and contexts; participants have shown that it is possible to produce timber while maintaining and enhancing ecosystems and contributing to socio-economic development. We present the case for forest production, restoration and mitigation/adaptation to limit climate and other environmental risks and to improve the resilience of landscapes.
In agriculture and forestry the land use impacts that occur during production are important; including as necessary inputs for life cycle assessments. There are major differences in land use impacts ...between different forest management approaches and, in future, those forestry systems which deliver ecosystem services while having lower adverse land use impacts will be of greater value. Here we examine the land use impacts of seven contrasting forest management approaches and agricultural cropping systems at five locations in Europe. Comprehensive management data were used to calculate land use impacts in an evaluation system based on ecosystem thermodynamics. This approach has a number of advantages, including that it is suitable for input to life cycle assessment. This is the first time this approach has been used at a number of agricultural and forestry sites. We show that agriculture tends to have higher land use impacts than forestry. Those forestry systems that are more intensively managed in shorter rotations have larger land use impacts when calculated for the entire rotation, but this is not the case when land use impact is calculated on the basis of production unit. These findings support the use of landscape mosaics with some high production areas and will be of increasingly significance as we seek to achieve economic growth without environmental degradation. That managed forests have relatively low land use impacts has important implications for forestry restoration and climate mitigation programmes, including the forestry components of Nationally Determined Contributions under the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change.
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•Land use impacts based on system thermodynamics are valuable in life cycle assessment.•Agricultural crops tend to have higher land use impacts (LUI) than forests.•Land use impacts over the full crop cycle increase with increasing management intensity.•For forests LUI per production unit decrease as management intensity increases.•In future we need forests that deliver optimal ecosystem services and low LUI.
First-ever measurements of particulate matter (PM
2.5
, PM
10
, and TSP) along with gaseous pollutants (CO, NO
2
, and SO
2
) were performed from June 2019 to April 2020 in Faisalabad, Metropolitan, ...Pakistan, to assess their seasonal variations; Summer 2019, Autumn 2019, Winter 2019–2020, and Spring 2020. Pollutant measurements were carried out at 30 locations with a 3-km grid distance from the Sitara Chemical Industry in District Faisalabad to Bhianwala, Sargodha Road, Tehsil Lalian, District Chiniot. ArcGIS 10.8 was used to interpolate pollutant concentrations using the inverse distance weightage method. PM
2.5
, PM
10
, and TSP concentrations were highest in summer, and lowest in autumn or winter. CO, NO
2
, and SO
2
concentrations were highest in summer or spring and lowest in winter. Seasonal average NO
2
and SO
2
concentrations exceeded WHO annual air quality guide values. For all 4 seasons, some sites had better air quality than others. Even in these cleaner sites air quality index (AQI) was
unhealthy for sensitive groups
and the less good sites showed
Very critical
AQI (> 500). Dust-bound carbon and sulfur contents were higher in spring (64 mg g
−1
) and summer (1.17 mg g
−1
) and lower in autumn (55 mg g
−1
) and winter (1.08 mg g
−1
). Venous blood analysis of 20 individuals showed cadmium and lead concentrations higher than WHO permissible limits. Those individuals exposed to direct roadside pollution for longer periods because of their occupation tended to show higher Pb and Cd blood concentrations. It is concluded that air quality along the roadside is extremely poor and potentially damaging to the health of exposed workers.
Graphical abstract
► A bottom-up approach to urban metabolism based on energy, water, carbon, pollutants. ► Combining environmental observations and simulations with socio-economic data. ► Developing a Decision Support ...System to evaluate urban planning alternatives. ► Aiding the evaluation of the sustainability of urban planning interventions. ► A step towards integration of scientific knowledge into sustainable urban planning.
Urban metabolism considers a city as a system with flows of energy and material between it and the environment. Recent advances in bio-physical sciences provide methods and models to estimate local scale energy, water, carbon and pollutant fluxes. However, good communication is required to provide this new knowledge and its implications to endusers (such as urban planners, architects and engineers). The FP7 project BRIDGE (sustainaBle uRban plannIng Decision support accountinG for urban mEtabolism) aimed to address this gap by illustrating the advantages of considering these issues in urban planning. The BRIDGE Decision Support System (DSS) aids the evaluation of the sustainability of urban planning interventions. The Multi Criteria Analysis approach adopted provides a method to cope with the complexity of urban metabolism. In consultation with targeted end-users, objectives were defined in relation to the interactions between the environmental elements (fluxes of energy, water, carbon and pollutants) and socioeconomic components (investment costs, housing, employment, etc.) of urban sustainability. The tool was tested in five case study cities: Helsinki, Athens, London, Florence and Gliwice; and sub-models were evaluated using flux data selected. This overview of the BRIDGE project covers the methods and tools used to measure and model the physical flows, the selected set of sustainability indicators, the methodological framework for evaluating urban planning alternatives and the resulting DSS prototype.
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