Sudden cardiac death (SCD) is the leading cause of medical death in athletes; however, many studies are significantly flawed making an accurate estimation of risk difficult. Incidence studies need to ...have accurate case ascertainment, a defined study population, and should be stratified by both sex and age. The risk of SCA/d in college-aged males is 1 in 35,000 person-years, black males 1 in 18,000 person-years, and higher-risk sports include men's basketball, men's soccer, and American football. Inherited cardiomyopathies and electrical conditions account for ∼ 2/3 of off SCA/d and can be detected with an ECG. More research is needed to provide more granular estimates.
The true incidence of sudden cardiac death (SCD) in US athletes is unknown. Current estimates are based largely on case identification through public media reports and estimated participation rates. ...The purpose of this study was to more precisely estimate the incidence of SCD in National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) student-athletes and assess the accuracy of traditional methods for collecting data on SCD.
From January 2004 through December 2008, all cases of sudden death in NCAA student-athletes were identified by use of an NCAA database, weekly systematic search of public media reports, and catastrophic insurance claims. During the 5-year period, there were 273 deaths and a total of 1 969 663 athlete participant-years. Of these 273 deaths, 187 (68%) were due to nonmedical or traumatic causes, 80 (29%) to medical causes, and 6 (2%) to unknown causes. Cardiovascular-related sudden death was the leading cause of death in 45 (56%) of 80 medical cases, and represented 75% of sudden deaths during exertion. The incidence of SCD was 1:43 770 participants per year. Among NCAA Division I male basketball players, the rate of SCD was 1:3100 per year. Thirty-nine (87%) of the 45 cardiac cases were identified in the NCAA database, only 25 (56%) by use of public media reports, and 9 (20%) from catastrophic claims data.
SCD is the leading medical cause of death and death during exercise in NCAA student-athletes. Current methods of data collection underestimate the risk of SCD. Accurate assessment of SCD incidence is necessary to shape appropriate health policy decisions and develop effective strategies for prevention.
Abstract Background The optimal cardiovascular preparticipation screen is debated. The purpose of this study was to perform a systematic review/meta-analysis of evidence comparing screening ...strategies. Methods PRIMSA guidelines were followed. Electronic databases were searched from January 1996 to November 2014 for articles examining the efficacy of screening with history and physical exam (PE) based on the American Heart Association (AHA) or similar recommendations and electrocardiogram (ECG). Pooled data was analyzed for sensitivity, specificity, false positive rates and positive and negative likelihood ratios. Secondary outcomes included rate of potentially lethal cardiovascular conditions detected with screening and the etiology of pathology discovered. Results Fifteen articles reporting on 47,137 athletes were reviewed. After meta-analysis the sensitivity and specificity of ECG was 94%/93%, history 20%/94%, and PE 9%/97%. The overall false positive rate of ECG (6%) was less than that of history (8%), or physical exam (10%). Positive likelihood ratios were ECG 14.8, history 3.22 and PE 2.93 and negative likelihood ratios were ECG 0.055, history 0.85, and PE 0.93. There were a total of 160 potentially lethal cardiovascular conditions detected for a rate of 0.3% or 1 in 294. The most common pathology was Wolff-Parkinson-White (67, 42%), Long QT Syndrome (18, 11%), hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (18, 11%), dilated cardiomyopathy (11, 7%), coronary artery disease or myocardial ischemia (9, 6%) and arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy (4, 3%). Conclusions The most effective strategy for screening for cardiovascular disease in athletes is ECG. It is 5 times more sensitive than history, 10 times more sensitive than physical exam, has higher positive likelihood ratio, lower negative likelihood ratio and a lower false positive rate. 12-lead ECG interpreted using modern criteria should be considered best practice in screening for cardiovascular disease in athletes while the use of history and physical alone as a screening tool should be reevaluated.
PURPOSE OF THE STATEMENT: ▸ To provide an evidence-based, best practises summary to assist physicians with the evaluation and management of sports concussion. ▸ To establish the level of evidence, ...knowledge gaps and areas requiring additional research.
▸ Sports medicine physicians are frequently involved in the care of patients with sports concussion. ▸ Sports medicine physicians are specifically trained to provide care along the continuum of sports concussion from the acute injury to return-to-play (RTP) decisions. ▸ The care of athletes with sports concussion is ideally performed by healthcare professionals with specific training and experience in the assessment and management of concussion. Competence should be determined by training and experience, not dictated by specialty. ▸ While this statement is directed towards sports medicine physicians, it may also assist other physicians and healthcare professionals in the care of patients with sports concussion.
▸ Concussion is defined as a traumatically induced transient disturbance of brain function and involves a complex pathophysiological process. Concussion is a subset of mild traumatic brain injury (MTBI) which is generally self-limited and at the less-severe end of the brain injury spectrum.
▸ Animal and human studies support the concept of postconcussive vulnerability, showing that a second blow before the brain has recovered results in worsening metabolic changes within the cell. ▸ Experimental evidence suggests the concussed brain is less responsive to usual neural activation and when premature cognitive or physical activity occurs before complete recovery the brain may be vulnerable to prolonged dysfunction.
▸ It is estimated that as many as 3.8 million concussions occur in the USA per year during competitive sports and recreational activities; however, as many as 50% of the concussions may go unreported. ▸ Concussions occur in all sports with the highest incidence in football, hockey, rugby, soccer and basketball. RISK FACTORS FOR SPORT-RELATED CONCUSSION: ▸ A history of concussion is associated with a higher risk of sustaining another concussion. ▸ A greater number, severity and duration of symptoms after a concussion are predictors of a prolonged recovery. ▸ In sports with similar playing rules, the reported incidence of concussion is higher in female athletes than in male athletes. ▸ Certain sports, positions and individual playing styles have a greater risk of concussion. ▸ Youth athletes may have a more prolonged recovery and are more susceptible to a concussion accompanied by a catastrophic injury. ▸ Preinjury mood disorders, learning disorders, attention-deficit disorders (ADD/ADHD) and migraine headaches complicate diagnosis and management of a concussion.
▸ Concussion remains a clinical diagnosis ideally made by a healthcare provider familiar with the athlete and knowledgeable in the recognition and evaluation of concussion. ▸ Graded symptom checklists provide an objective tool for assessing a variety of symptoms related to concussions, while also tracking the severity of those symptoms over serial evaluations. ▸ Standardised assessment tools provide a helpful structure for the evaluation of concussion, although limited validation of these assessment tools is available.
▸ Any athlete suspected of having a concussion should be stopped from playing and assessed by a licenced healthcare provider trained in the evaluation and management of concussions. ▸ Recognition and initial assessment of a concussion should be guided by a symptoms checklist, cognitive evaluation (including orientation, past and immediate memory, new learning and concentration), balance tests and further neurological physical examination. ▸ While standardised sideline tests are a useful framework for examination, the sensitivity, specificity, validity and reliability of these tests among different age groups, cultural groups and settings is largely undefined. Their practical usefulness with or without an individual baseline test is also largely unknown. ▸ Balance disturbance is a specific indicator of a concussion, but not very sensitive. Balance testing on the sideline may be substantially different than baseline tests because of differences in shoe/cleat-type or surface, use of ankle tape or braces, or the presence of other lower extremity injury. ▸ Imaging is reserved for athletes where intracerebral bleeding is suspected. ▸ There is no same day RTP for an athlete diagnosed with a concussion. ▸ Athletes suspected or diagnosed with a concussion should be monitored for deteriorating physical or mental status.
▸ Neuropsychological (NP) tests are an objective measure of brain-behaviour relationships and are more sensitive for subtle cognitive impairment than clinical exam. ▸ Most concussions can be managed appropriately without the use of NP testing. ▸ Computerised neuropsychological (CNP) testing should be interpreted by healthcare professionals trained and familiar with the type of test and the individual test limitations, including a knowledgeable assessment of the reliable change index, baseline variability and false-positive and false-negative rates. ▸ Paper and pencil NP tests can be more comprehensive, test different domains and assess for other conditions which may masquerade as or complicate assessment of concussion. ▸ NP testing should be used only as part of a comprehensive concussion management strategy and should not be used in isolation. ▸ The ideal timing, frequency and type of NP testing have not been determined. ▸ In some cases, properly administered and interpreted NP testing provides an added value to assess cognitive function and recovery in the management of sports concussions. ▸ It is unknown if use of NP testing in the management of sports concussion helps prevent recurrent concussion, catastrophic injury or long-term complications. ▸ Comprehensive NP evaluation is helpful in the post-concussion management of athletes with persistent symptoms or complicated courses.
▸ Students will require cognitive rest and may require academic accommodations such as reduced workload and extended time for tests while recovering from a concussion.
▸ Concussion symptoms should be resolved before returning to exercise. ▸ A RTP progression involves a gradual, step-wise increase in physical demands, sports-specific activities and the risk for contact. ▸ If symptoms occur with activity, the progression should be halted and restarted at the preceding symptom-free step. ▸ RTP after concussion should occur only with medical clearance from a licenced healthcare provider trained in the evaluation and management of concussions. SHORT-TERM RISKS OF PREMATURE RTP: ▸ The primary concern with early RTP is decreased reaction time leading to an increased risk of a repeat concussion or other injury and prolongation of symptoms. LONG-TERM EFFECTS: ▸ There is an increasing concern that head impact exposure and recurrent concussions contribute to long-term neurological sequelae. ▸ Some studies have suggested an association between prior concussions and chronic cognitive dysfunction. Large-scale epidemiological studies are needed to more clearly define risk factors and causation of any long-term neurological impairment.
▸ There are no evidence-based guidelines for disqualifying/retiring an athlete from a sport after a concussion. Each case should be carefully deliberated and an individualised approach to determining disqualification taken.
▸ Greater efforts are needed to educate involved parties, including athletes, parents, coaches, officials, school administrators and healthcare providers to improve concussion recognition, management and prevention. ▸ Physicians should be prepared to provide counselling regarding potential long-term consequences of a concussion and recurrent concussions.
▸ Primary prevention of some injuries may be possible with modification and enforcement of the rules and fair play. ▸ Helmets, both hard (football, lacrosse and hockey) and soft (soccer, rugby) are best suited to prevent impact injuries (fracture, bleeding, laceration, etc.) but have not been shown to reduce the incidence and severity of concussions. ▸ There is no current evidence that mouth guards can reduce the severity of or prevent concussions. ▸ Secondary prevention may be possible by appropriate RTP management.
▸ Legislative efforts provide a uniform standard for scholastic and non-scholastic sports organisations regarding concussion safety and management.
▸ Additional research is needed to validate current assessment tools, delineate the role of NP testing and improve identification of those at risk of prolonged post-concussive symptoms or other long-term complications. ▸ Evolving technologies for the diagnosis of concussion, such as newer neuroimaging techniques or biological markers, may provide new insights into the evaluation and management of sports concussion.
Sudden cardiac arrest (SCA) is the leading cause of death in athletes during exercise. The effectiveness of school-based automated external defibrillator (AED) programmes has not been established ...through a prospective study.
A total of 2149 high schools participated in a prospective observational study beginning 1 August 2009, through 31 July 2011. Schools were contacted quarterly and reported all cases of SCA. Of these 95% of schools confirmed their participation for the entire 2-year study period. Cases of SCA were reviewed to confirm the details of the resuscitation. The primary outcome was survival to hospital discharge.
School-based AED programmes were present in 87% of participating schools and in all but one of the schools reporting a case of SCA. Fifty nine cases of SCA were confirmed during the study period including 26 (44%) cases in students and 33 (56%) in adults; 39 (66%) cases occurred at an athletic facility during training or competition; 55 (93%) cases were witnessed and 54 (92%) received prompt cardiopulmonary resuscitation. A defibrillator was applied in 50 (85%) cases and a shock delivered onsite in 39 (66%). Overall, 42 of 59 (71%) SCA victims survived to hospital discharge, including 22 of 26 (85%) students and 20 of 33 (61%) adults. Of 18 student-athletes 16 (89%) and 8 of 9 (89%) adults who arrested during physical activity survived to hospital discharge.
High school AED programmes demonstrate a high survival rate for students and adults who suffer SCA on school campus. School-based AED programmes are strongly encouraged.
Abstract Sudden cardiac death (SCD) is the leading cause of mortality in athletes during sport. A variety of mostly hereditary, structural, or electrical cardiac disorders are associated with SCD in ...young athletes, the majority of which can be identified or suggested by abnormalities on a resting 12-lead electrocardiogram (ECG). Whether used for diagnostic or screening purposes, physicians responsible for the cardiovascular care of athletes should be knowledgeable and competent in ECG interpretation in athletes. However, in most countries a shortage of physician expertise limits wider application of the ECG in the care of the athlete. A critical need exists for physician education in modern ECG interpretation that distinguishes normal physiological adaptations in athletes from distinctly abnormal findings suggestive of underlying pathology. Since the original 2010 European Society of Cardiology recommendations for ECG interpretation in athletes, ECG standards have evolved quickly over the last decade; pushed by a growing body of scientific data that both tests proposed criteria sets and establishes new evidence to guide refinements. On February 26-27, 2015, an international group of experts in sports cardiology, inherited cardiac disease, and sports medicine convened in Seattle, Washington, to update contemporary standards for ECG interpretation in athletes. The objective of the meeting was to define and revise ECG interpretation standards based on new and emerging research and to develop a clear guide to the proper evaluation of ECG abnormalities in athletes. This statement represents an international consensus for ECG interpretation in athletes and provides expert opinion-based recommendations linking specific ECG abnormalities and the secondary evaluation for conditions associated with SCD.
Sudden cardiac death (SCD) is the leading medical cause of death in athletes; however, the precise incidence is unknown. The objectives of this review were to examine studies on the rate of SCD in ...athletes, assess the methodological strengths and weaknesses used to arrive at estimates, compare studies in athletes with estimates in similar populations and arrive at an approximation of the incidence of SCD based on the best available evidence. A comprehensive literature search was performed in PubMed using key terms related to SCD in athletes. Articles were reviewed for relevance and included if they contained information on the incidence of SCD in athletes or young persons up to the age of 40. The reference list from each manuscript was reviewed for additional relevant articles. The methods for case identification were examined, as well as the inclusion and exclusion criteria and the precision of the population denominator studied. Thirteen studies were found investigating the rate of SCD in athletes who ranged in age from 9 to 40. An additional 15 incidence studies were located examining the rate of SCD in other populations under the age of 40. Rates of SCD varied from 1:917,000 to 1:3000. Studies with higher methodological quality consistently yielded incidence rates in the range of 1:40,000 to 1:80,000. Some athlete subgroups, specifically men, African-American/black athletes and basketball players, appear to be at higher risk. The incidence of SCD in athletes is likely higher than traditional estimates which may impact the development of more effective prevention strategies.
To determine the incidence and etiology of sudden cardiac arrest and death (SCA/D) in US high school athletes.
A prospective media database of SCA/D was queried for cases aged 14 to 18 years from 7 ...states over 6 school years (September 1, 2007, to August 30, 2013). Event details were investigated to determine participation on a high school athletic team, sex, sport, and occurrence during school-sponsored activity or exertion. National sports participation numbers were used and a conversion factor was applied to account for multisport athletes. Autopsy reports were reviewed and cause of death was adjudicated by an expert panel.
A total of 16,390,409 million athlete-seasons representing 6,974,640 athlete-years (AY) were examined, encompassing 36% of the total US high school athlete population. A total of 104 cases of SCA/D were identified (35 SCA with survival and 69 sudden cardiac deaths SCDs). The rate of SCD was 1:101,082 AY and of SCA/D 1:67,064 AY. Eighty-eight percent (92) of events occurred in male athletes. The rate of SCA/D in male athletes was 1:44,832 AY and in female athletes 1:237,510 AY (incidence rate ratio, 5.3; 95% CI, 2.9-10.6; P<.001). Men's basketball was the highest risk sport with an SCA/D incidence of 1:37,087 AY followed by men's football at 1:86,494 AY. Men's basketball and football athletes accounted for 57% (39) of deaths. Eighty percent of SCDs (55 of 69) were exertional and 55% (38 of 69) occurred while playing for a school-sponsored team. Autopsy reports were obtained in 73% (50) of cases. The most common findings of autopsy were idiopathic left ventricular hypertrophy or possible cardiomyopathy (13 of 50 26%), autopsy-negative sudden unexplained death (9 of 50 18%), hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (7 of 50 14%), and myocarditis (7 of 50 14%).
The rate of SCA/D in male high school athletes was 1:44,832 AY, with almost half due to possible or confirmed cardiomyopathy disease. It is likely that many cases were not identified because of reliance on media reports, and these numbers represent a minimum estimate.
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