Cancer-related cognitive dysfunction has mostly been attributed to chemotherapy; this explanation, however, fails to account for cognitive dysfunction observed in chemotherapy-naïve patients. In a ...controlled, longitudinal, multisite study, we tested the hypothesis that cognitive function in breast cancer patients is affected by cancer-related post-traumatic stress.
Newly diagnosed breast cancer patients and healthy control subjects, age 65 or younger, underwent three assessments within one year, including paper-and-pencil and computerized neuropsychological tests, clinical diagnostics of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and self-reported cognitive function. Analysis of variance was used to compare three groups of participants-patients who did or did not receive chemotherapy and healthy control subjects-on age- and education-corrected cognitive performance and cognitive change. Differences that were statistically significant after correction for false discovery rate were investigated with linear mixed-effects models and mediation models. All statistical tests were two-sided.
Of 226 participants (166 patients and 60 control subjects), 206 completed all assessment sessions (attrition: 8.8%). Patients demonstrated overall cognitive decline (group*time effect on composite z -score: -0.13, P = .04) and scored consistently worse on Go/Nogo errors. The latter effect was mediated by PTSD symptoms (mediation effect: B = 0.15, 95% confidence interval = 0.02 to 0.38). Only chemotherapy patients showed declined reaction time on a computerized alertness test. Overall cognitive performance correlated with self-reported cognitive problems at one year ( T = -0.11, P = .02).
Largely irrespective of chemotherapy, breast cancer patients may encounter very subtle cognitive dysfunction, part of which is mediated by cancer-related post-traumatic stress. Further factors other than treatment side effects remain to be investigated.
Pretreatment cognitive impairment in cancer patients is well established but unexplained. Similar cognitive compromise has been observed in post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) patients, and PTSD ...symptoms are a frequent concomitant of cancer diagnosis. We tested the hypothesis that pretreatment cognitive impairment is attributable to cancer-related post-traumatic stress.
Women aged 65 years or younger who were diagnosed with breast cancer (case patients) or had undergone negative routine breast imaging (control patients) at one of six participating breast centers underwent traditional and computerized neuropsychological testing, clinician-administered diagnostic assessment of stress disorders, and self-report assessments of cognitive function and depression. To minimize confounding, case patients were evaluated prior to any local or systemic treatment. Cognitive indices of case patients, control patients, and normative samples were compared. The patients' risk of overall cognitive impairment was determined. Linear regression and a mediation model were used to test the study hypothesis. All statistical tests were two-sided.
The 166 case patients and 60 well-matched control patients showed near-identical deviations from population norms. Case patients scored worse than control patients on two of 20 cognitive indices (Go/Nogo commission errors, Go/Nogo omission errors). Self-reported cognitive problems were associated with Go/Nogo omission errors and more pronounced in case patients. Only PTSD symptoms (Beta = 0.27, P = .004) and age (Beta = 0.22, P = .04) statistically significantly predicted Go/Nogo errors. The effect of having cancer on Go/Nogo errors was mediated by PTSD symptoms. Case patients did not have an increased risk of overall cognitive impairment.
Prior to any treatment, breast cancer patients may show limited cognitive impairment that is apparently largely caused by cancer-related post-traumatic stress.
Self-perceived problems of cognitive functioning after treatment for early-stage breast cancer have the potential to substantially affect the lives of patients. In the past two decades, ...neuropsychological studies have accumulated evidence of corresponding cognitive deficits that have mostly been attributed to neurotoxic effects of chemotherapy. Nevertheless, observations of impaired cognitive functioning already before the start of adjuvant or neoadjuvant chemotherapy question the singular role of chemotherapy for the causation of these deficits. The divergence between mostly subtle neuropsychological deficits and often dramatic subjective cognitive complaints as well as the lack of association between both in the majority of studies present an unsolved puzzle. Recent investigations that include brain imaging have begun to yield tentative answers in this regard. The present review aims at briefly summarizing and integrating the current evidence from clinical studies for purposes of patient counseling.
In various cancers, overexpression of cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 and elevated prostaglandin (PG) E2 synthesis have been associated with tumor development and progression. The potential of COX-2 ...inhibitors in cancer prevention and treatment has been shown repeatedly; however, their clinical use is limited due to toxicity. PGE2 signals via EP receptors 1-4, whose functions are analyzed in current research in search for targeted anti-PG therapies. EP2 and EP4 rather promote tumorigenesis, while the role of EP3, especially in breast cancer, is not yet clear and both pro- and anti-tumorigenic effects have been described. Our study evaluates EP3 receptor expression in sporadic breast cancer and its association with clinicopathological parameters, progression-free and overall survival.
Two hundred eighty-nine sporadic breast cancer samples without primary distant metastasis were immunohistochemically analyzed for EP3 receptor expression. Tissue was stained with primary anti-EP3-antibodies. Immunoreactivity was quantified by the immunoreactivity-score (IRS); samples with an IRS ≥ 2 scored as EP3 positive. Chi-squared and Mann-Whitney-U test were used for comparison of data; Kaplan-Meier estimates and Cox-regression were used for survival analyses.
EP3 receptor was expressed in 205 of 289 samples analyzed (70.9%). EP3 receptor expression was not associated with clinicopathological parameters (e. g. tumor size, hormone receptors, lymph node status). Kaplan-Meier estimates showed a significant association of EP3 positivity with improved progression-free survival (p = 0.002) and improved overall survival (p = 0.001) after up to 10 years. Cox regression analysis confirmed EP3 positivity as a significant prognostic factor even when other known prognosticators were accounted for.
In sporadic breast cancer, EP3 receptor expression is not significantly associated with clinicopathological parameters but is a significant prognostic factor for improved progression-free and overall survival. However, the functional aspects of EP3 receptor in breast cancer and the way how EP3 may oppose the pro-tumorigenic effects of PGE2 elevation and COX-2 overexpression are not fully understood so far. Further studies aiming at identification of the factors regulated by EP3 are necessary to evaluate the possibility of targeting EP3 in future anti-tumor therapy in breast cancer.
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