Using a short-duration step protocol and continuous indirect calorimetry, whole-body rates of fat and carbohydrate oxidation can be estimated across a range of exercise workloads, along with the ...individual maximal rate of fat oxidation (MFO) and the exercise intensity at which MFO occurs (Fat
). These variables appear to have implications both in sport and health contexts. After discussion of the key determinants of MFO and Fat
that must be considered during laboratory measurement, the present review sought to synthesize existing data in order to contextualize individually measured fat oxidation values. Data collected in homogenous cohorts on cycle ergometers after an overnight fast was synthesized to produce normative values in given subject populations. These normative values might be used to contextualize individual measurements and define research cohorts according their capacity for fat oxidation during exercise. Pertinent directions for future research were identified.
Measures of an athlete’s heart rate variability (HRV) have shown potential to be of use in the prescription of training. However, little data exists on elite athletes who are regularly exposed to ...high training loads. This case study monitored daily HRV in two elite triathletes (one male: 22 year,
O
2max
72.5 ml kg min
−1
; one female: 20 year,
O
2max
68.2 ml kg min
−1
) training 23 ± 2 h per week, over a 77-day period. During this period, one athlete performed poorly in a key triathlon event, was diagnosed as non-functionally over-reached (NFOR) and subsequently reactivated the dormant virus herpes zoster (shingles). The 7-day rolling average of the log-transformed square root of the mean sum of the squared differences between R–R intervals (Ln rMSSD), declined towards the day of triathlon event (slope = −0.17 ms/week;
r
2
= −0.88) in the NFOR athlete, remaining stable in the control (slope = 0.01 ms/week;
r
2
= 0.12). Furthermore, in the NFOR athlete, coefficient of variation of HRV (CV of Ln rMSSD 7-day rolling average) revealed large linear reductions towards NFOR (i.e., linear regression of HRV variables versus day number towards NFOR: −0.65%/week and
r
2
= −0.48), while these variables remained stable for the control athlete (slope = 0.04%/week). These data suggest that trends in both absolute HRV values and day-to-day variations may be useful measurements indicative of the progression towards mal-adaptation or non-functional over-reaching.
Purpose
To quantify the effects of prolonged cycling on the rate of ventilation (
V
˙
E
), frequency of respiration (F
R
), and tidal volume (V
T
) associated with the moderate-to-heavy intensity ...transition.
Methods
Fourteen endurance-trained cyclists and triathletes (one female) completed an assessment of the moderate-to-heavy intensity transition, determined as the first ventilatory threshold (VT
1
), before (PRE) and after (POST) two hours of moderate-intensity cycling. The power output,
V
˙
E
, F
R
, and V
T
associated with VT
1
were determined PRE and POST.
Results
As previously reported, power output at VT
1
significantly decreased by ~ 10% from PRE to POST. The
V
˙
E
associated with VT
1
was unchanged from PRE to POST (72 ± 12 vs. 69 ± 13 L
.
min
−1
, ∆ − 3 ± 5 L
.
min
−1
, ∆ − 4 ± 8%,
P
= 0.075), and relatively consistent (within-subject coefficient of variation, 5.4% 3.7, 8.0%). The
V
˙
E
associated with VT
1
was produced with increased F
R
(27.6 ± 5.8 vs. 31.9 ± 6.5 breaths
.
min
−1
, ∆ 4.3 ± 3.1 breaths
.
min
−1
, ∆ 16 ± 11%,
P
= 0.0002) and decreased V
T
(2.62 ± 0.43 vs. 2.19 ± 0.36 L
.
breath
−1
, ∆ − 0.44 ± 0.22 L
.
breath
−1
, ∆ − 16 ± 7%,
P
= 0.0002) in POST.
Conclusion
These data suggest prolonged exercise shifts ventilatory parameters at the moderate-to-heavy intensity transition, but
V
˙
E
remains stable. Real-time monitoring of
V
˙
E
may be a useful means of assessing proximity to the moderate-to-heavy intensity transition during prolonged exercise and is worthy of further research.
Heart rate variability (HRV) is an objective physiological marker that may be useful for monitoring training status in athletes. However, research aiming to interpret daily HRV changes in female ...athletes is limited. The objectives of this study were: 1) to assess daily HRV (i.e., log-transformed root mean square of successive R-R interval differences, lnRMSSD) trends both as a team and intra-individually in response to varying training load (TL); and 2) to determine relationships between lnRMSSD fluctuation (coefficient of variation, lnRMSSDcv) and psychometric and fitness parameters in collegiate female soccer players (N.=10).
Ultra-short, Smartphone-derived lnRMSSD and psychometrics were evaluated daily throughout 2 consecutive weeks of high and low TL. After the training period, fitness parameters were assessed.
When compared to baseline, reductions in lnRMSSD ranged from unclear to very likely moderate during the high TL week (effect size ±90% confidence limits ES±90% CL =-0.21±0.74 to -0.64±0.78, respectively) while lnRMSSD reductions were unclear during the low TL week (ES±90% CL=-0.03±0.73 to -0.35±0.75, respectively). A large difference in TL between weeks was observed (ES±90% CL=1.37±0.80). Higher lnRMSSDcv was associated with greater perceived fatigue and lower fitness (r upper and lower 90% CL=-0.55 -0.84, -0.003 large, -0.65 -0.89, -0.15 large).
Athletes with lower fitness or higher perceived fatigue demonstrated greater reductions in lnRMSSD throughout training. This information can be useful when interpreting individual lnRMSSD responses throughout training for managing player fatigue.
This study aimed to investigate the effect of a 12-week very low-carbohydrate, high-fat (VLCHF) diet and exercise on biomarkers of inflammation in healthy individuals. Since the anti-inflammatory ...effects of a ketogenic diet have been established, we hypothesized that the VLCHF diet, along with exercise, would have an additional favorable effect on biomarkers of inflammation. Twenty-four healthy individuals were allocated to the VLCHF diet (VLCHF: N = 12, age 25.3 ± 2.0 years, body mass 66.7 ± 9.8 kg, fat mass 21.5% ± 4.9%), or habitual diet (HD: N = 12, age 23.9 ± 3.8 years, body mass 72.7 ± 15.0 kg, fat mass 23.4 ± 8.4 %) group. Biomarkers of inflammation (adiponectin, leptin, and high-sensitive interleukin-6 hs-IL-6) and substrate metabolism (glycated hemoglobin, fasting glucose, triacylglycerides, and cholesterol) were analyzed from blood at baseline and after 12 weeks. The adiponectin-leptin ratio significantly increased in the VLCHF group after the intervention period (ES 95% CL: −0.90 −0.96, −0.77, P ≤ .001, BF10 = 22.15). The adiponectin-leptin ratio changes were associated with both a significant increase in adiponectin (−0.79 −0.91, −0.54, P ≤ .001, BF10 = 9.43) and a significant decrease in leptin (0.58 0.19, 0.81, P = .014, BF10 = 2.70). There was moderate evidence of changes in total cholesterol (−1.15 −2.01, −0.27, P = .010, BF10 = 5.20), and LDL cholesterol (−1.12 −2.01, −0.21, P = .016, BF10 = 4.56) in the VLCHF group. Body weight (kg) and fat mass (%) decreased in the VLCHF group by 5.4% and 14.9%, respectively. We found that in healthy young individuals, consuming a VLCHF diet while performing regular exercise over a 12-week period produced favorable changes in body weight and fat mass along with beneficial changes in serum adiponectin and leptin concentrations. These data support the use of a VLCHF diet strategy for the primary prevention of chronic diseases associated with systemic low-grade inflammation.
The aim of this non-randomized parallel group study was to examine the 12 week effects of a very low-carbohydrate high-fat diet (VLCHF) on maximal cardiorespiratory capacity, high-intensity interval ...training (HIIT) performance, and cardiac autonomic regulation.
Twenty-four recreationally trained participants allocated to either a VLCHF (
= 12) or a habitual diet (HD;
= 12) group completed 12 weeks of a diet and exercise (VLCHF) or an exercise only intervention (HD). Maximal graded exercise tests (GXT) were performed at baseline, after 4, 8, and 12 weeks. A supervised HIIT session and the 30-15 Intermittent Fitness Test (30-15
) were conducted once a week.
Total time to exhaustion (TTE) in both GXT and 30-15
increased in both VLCHF (
= 0.005, BF
= 11.30 and
= 0.001, BF
≥ 100, respectively) and HD (
= 0.018, BF
= 3.87 and
= 0.001, BF
≥ 100, respectively) groups after 12 weeks. Absolute maximal oxygen uptake (
O
) was not changed in both groups but relative
O
increased in VLCHF in concert with reductions in body mass (66.7 ± 10.2-63.1 ± 8.5 kg). Cardiac autonomic regulation did not reveal any between-group differences after 12 weeks. VLCHF diet induced an increase in β-hydroxybutyrate, which tended to normalize during the intervention period.
The 12 week VLCHF diet did not impair high-intensity continuous or intermittent exercise lasting up to 25 min, nor did it impair maximal cardiorespiratory performance or autonomic nervous system (ANS) activity.
Nutritional intake can influence exercise metabolism and performance, but there is a lack of research comparing protein-rich pre-exercise meals with endurance exercise performed both in the fasted ...state and following a carbohydrate-rich breakfast. The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of three pre-exercise nutrition strategies on metabolism and exercise capacity during cycling. On three occasions, seventeen trained male cyclists (VO
62.2 ± 5.8 mL·kg
·min
, 31.2 ± 12.4 years, 74.8 ± 9.6 kg) performed twenty minutes of submaximal cycling (4 × 5 min stages at 60%, 80%, and 100% of ventilatory threshold (VT), and 20% of the difference between power at the VT and peak power), followed by 3 × 3 min intervals at 80% peak aerobic power and 3 × 3 min intervals at maximal effort, 30 min after consuming a carbohydrate-rich meal (CARB; 1 g/kg CHO), a protein-rich meal (PROTEIN; 0.45 g/kg protein + 0.24 g/kg fat), or water (FASTED), in a randomized and counter-balanced order. Fat oxidation was lower for CARB compared with FASTED at and below the VT, and compared with PROTEIN at 60% VT. There were no differences between trials for average power during high-intensity intervals (367 ± 51 W,
= 0.516). Oxidative stress (F
-Isoprostanes), perceived exertion, and hunger were not different between trials. Overall, exercising in the overnight-fasted state increased fat oxidation during submaximal exercise compared with exercise following a CHO-rich breakfast, and pre-exercise protein ingestion allowed similarly high levels of fat oxidation. There were no differences in perceived exertion, hunger, or performance, and we provide novel data showing no influence of pre-exercise nutrition ingestion on exercise-induced oxidative stress.
The measurement of heart rate variability (HRV) is often considered a convenient non-invasive assessment tool for monitoring individual adaptation to training. Decreases and increases in ...vagal-derived indices of HRV have been suggested to indicate negative and positive adaptations, respectively, to endurance training regimens. However, much of the research in this area has involved recreational and well-trained athletes, with the small number of studies conducted in elite athletes revealing equivocal outcomes. For example, in elite athletes, studies have revealed both increases and decreases in HRV to be associated with negative adaptation. Additionally, signs of positive adaptation, such as increases in cardiorespiratory fitness, have been observed with atypical concomitant decreases in HRV. As such, practical ways by which HRV can be used to monitor training status in elites are yet to be established. This article addresses the current literature that has assessed changes in HRV in response to training loads and the likely positive and negative adaptations shown. We reveal limitations with respect to how the measurement of HRV has been interpreted to assess positive and negative adaptation to endurance training regimens and subsequent physical performance. We offer solutions to some of the methodological issues associated with using HRV as a day-to-day monitoring tool. These include the use of appropriate averaging techniques, and the use of specific HRV indices to overcome the issue of HRV saturation in elite athletes (i.e., reductions in HRV despite decreases in resting heart rate). Finally, we provide examples in Olympic and World Champion athletes showing how these indices can be practically applied to assess training status and readiness to perform in the period leading up to a pinnacle event. The paper reveals how longitudinal HRV monitoring in elites is required to understand their unique individual HRV fingerprint. For the first time, we demonstrate how increases and decreases in HRV relate to changes in fitness and freshness, respectively, in elite athletes.
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