Dust around active galactic nuclei (AGNs) is distributed over a wide range of spatial scales and can be observed in the infrared (IR). These observations are difficult to reconcile with the standard ...interpretation that most of the parsec-scale mid-IR emission in AGNs originate from the torus and challenges the justification of using simple torus models to model the broadband IR emission. Here, we report detailed interferometry observations of the unobscured (type 1) AGN in NGC 3783 that allow us to constrain the size, elongation, and direction of the mid-IR emission with high accuracy. Based on this SED, we determine covering factors for the hot and warm dust components of C sub(hot) = 0.42 super(+0.42) sub(-0.21)and C sub(warm) = 0.92 super(+0.92) sub(-0.46), respectively. We conclude that these observations support a scenario where the majority of the mid-IR emission in Seyfert AGNs originate from a dusty wind in the polar region of the AGN.
Abstract
Spectral features from polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) molecules observed in the mid-infrared (mid-IR) range are typically used to infer the amount of recent and ongoing star formation ...on kiloparsec scales around active galactic nuclei (AGN) where more traditional methods fail. This method assumes that the observed PAH features are excited predominantly by star formation. With current ground-based telescopes and the upcoming James Webb Space Telescope, much smaller spatial scales can be probed and we aim at testing if this assumption still holds in the range of few tens to few hundreds of parsecs. For that, we spatially map the emitted 11.3 μm PAH surface flux as a function of distance from 0.4–4 arcsec from the centre in 28 nearby AGN using ground-based high-angular-resolution mid-IR spectroscopy. We detect and extract the 11.3 μm PAH feature in 13 AGN. The fluxes within each aperture are scaled to a luminosity-normalized distance from the nucleus to be able to compare intrinsic spatial scales of AGN radiation spanning about two orders of magnitude in luminosity. For this, we establish an empirical relation between the absorption-corrected X-ray luminosity and the sublimation radius in these sources. Once normalized, the radial profiles of the emitted PAH surface flux show similar radial slopes, with a power-law index of approximately −1.1, and similar absolute values, consistent within a factor of a few of each other as expected from the uncertainty in the intrinsic scale estimate. We interpret this as evidence that the profiles are caused by a common compact central physical process, either the AGN itself or circumnuclear star formation linked in strength to the AGN power. A photoionization-based model of an AGN exciting dense clouds in its environment can reproduce the observed radial slope and confirms that the AGN radiation field is strong enough to explain the observed PAH surface fluxes within ∼10–500 pc of the nucleus. Our results advice caution in the use of PAH emission as a star formation tracer within a kpc around AGN.
The broadening of atomic emission lines by high-velocity motion of gas near accreting supermassive black holes is an observational hallmark of quasars
. Observations of broad emission lines could ...potentially constrain the mechanism for transporting gas inwards through accretion disks or outwards through winds
. The size of regions for which broad emission lines are observed (broad-line regions) has been estimated by measuring the delay in light travel time between the variable brightness of the accretion disk continuum and the emission lines
-a method known as reverberation mapping. In some models the emission lines arise from a continuous outflow
, whereas in others they arise from orbiting gas clouds
. Directly imaging such regions has not hitherto been possible because of their small angular size (less than 10
arcseconds
). Here we report a spatial offset (with a spatial resolution of 10
arcseconds, or about 0.03 parsecs for a distance of 550 million parsecs) between the red and blue photo-centres of the broad Paschen-α line of the quasar 3C 273 perpendicular to the direction of its radio jet. This spatial offset corresponds to a gradient in the velocity of the gas and thus implies that the gas is orbiting the central supermassive black hole. The data are well fitted by a broad-line-region model of a thick disk of gravitationally bound material orbiting a black hole of 3 × 10
solar masses. We infer a disk radius of 150 light days; a radius of 100-400 light days was found previously using reverberation mapping
. The rotation axis of the disk aligns in inclination and position angle with the radio jet. Our results support the methods that are often used to estimate the masses of accreting supermassive black holes and to study their evolution over cosmic time.
ABSTRACT
Using the stokes Monte Carlo radiative transfer code, we revisit the predictions of the spectropolarimetric signal from a disc-like broad emission line region (BLR) in type I active galactic ...nuclei due to equatorial scattering. We reproduce the findings of previous works, but only for a scatterer that is much more optically and geometrically thick than previously proposed. We also find that when taking into account the polarized emission from all regions of the scatterer, the swing of the polarization position angle (PA) is in the opposite direction to that originally proposed. Furthermore, we find that the presence of outflows in the scattering media can significantly change the observed line profiles, with the PA of the scattering signal being enhanced in the presence of radially outflowing winds. Finally, a characteristically different PA profile, shaped like an ‘M’, is seen when the scatterer is co-spatial with the BLR and radially outflowing.
Power generation performance and long‐term durability of ammonia‐fueled solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) systems are investigated with SOFC stacks consisting of 30 planar anode‐supported cells. SOFC ...systems with three different operation modes are employed: direct ammonia, external decomposition and autothermal decomposition. A novel BaO/Ni/Sm2O3/MgO catalyst is newly developed for the external ammonia cracker, whereas a Co‐Ce‐Zr composite oxide catalyst is used for the autothermal ammonia cracker. Initial performance measurement and 1,000 h long‐term durability test of the stacks are conducted. The stack fueled with direct ammonia achieves 1 kW power output with 52% direct current (DC) electrical efficiency; a slight decrease in its performance compared with the stack with the mixture fuel of hydrogen and nitrogen is attributed to the decrease in the stack temperature caused by the endothermic ammonia decomposition reaction. The external ammonia cracker helps to maintain the stack temperature, improving the initial performance of the stack. The stack performance with the autothermal ammonia cracker is also comparable to those with the other operation modes. It is also demonstrated that the stacks fueled with ammonia have excellent stability during the long‐term tests and 57% energy conversion efficiency at ca. 700 W electrical output is achieved with the external ammonia cracker.
ABSTRACT
We present the ionized gas outflow morphology in the Circinus galaxy using the narrow-field mode (NFM) of the Multi Unit Spectroscopic Explorer (MUSE) instrument onboard the Very Large ...Telescope (VLT). The NFM observations provide a spatial resolution of ∼0.1 arcsec, corresponding to a physical scale of ∼2 pc, one of the highest spatial resolution achievable using ground-based adaptive optics-assisted observations in the optical wavelengths. The MUSE observations reveal a collimated clumpy outflow profile originating near the active galactic nucleus (AGN) location and extending up to 1.5 arcsec (∼30 pc) in the north-west direction. The collimated structure then fragments into two filaments, giving the entire outflowing gas a ‘tuning-fork’ morphology. These structures remain undetected in the lower spatial resolution MUSE wide-field mode data. We explain the origin of this tuning-fork structure to the interaction of the outflow with a dense clump in the interstellar medium (ISM) as the outflow propagates outwards. The origin of the collimated structure itself could be from jet–ISM interactions on small scales. These observations also provide evidence to the origin of the ionized gas filaments previously observed in the Circinus galaxy out to kiloparsec scales. We find instantaneous and time-averaged mass outflow rates of 10−2 and 10−4 M⊙ yr−1, respectively. Based on the star formation rate in the Circinus galaxy reported in the literature, the observed ionized outflows are not expected to regulate star formation within the ∼100 pc scales probed by the NFM data.
Abstract
We present new calculations of the Clumpy AGN Tori in a 3D geometry (CAT3D) clumpy torus models, which now include a more physical dust sublimation model as well as active galactic nucleus ...(AGN) anisotropic emission. These new models allow graphite grains to persist at temperatures higher than the silicate dust sublimation temperature. This produces stronger near-infrared emission and bluer mid-infrared (MIR) spectral slopes. We make a statistical comparison of the CAT3D model MIR predictions with a compilation of sub-arcsecond resolution ground-based MIR spectroscopy of 52 nearby Seyfert galaxies (median distance of 36 Mpc) and 10 quasars. We focus on the AGN MIR spectral index αMIR and the strength of the 9.7 μm silicate feature S
Sil. As with other clumpy torus models, the new CAT3D models do not reproduce the Seyfert galaxies with deep silicate absorption (S
Sil < −1). Excluding those, we conclude that the new CAT3D models are in better agreement with the observed αMIR and S
Sil of Seyfert galaxies and quasars. We find that Seyfert 2 are reproduced with models with low photon escape probabilities, while the quasars and the Seyfert 1–1.5 require generally models with higher photon escape probabilities. Quasars and Seyfert 1–1.5 tend to show steeper radial cloud distributions and fewer clouds along an equatorial line of sight than Seyfert 2. Introducing AGN anisotropic emission besides the more physical dust sublimation models alleviates the problem of requiring inverted radial cloud distributions (i.e. more clouds towards the outer parts of the torus) to explain the MIR spectral indices of type 2 Seyferts.
We are now exploring the inner region of type 1 active galactic nuclei (AGNs) with the Keck interferometer in the near-infrared. Adding to the four targets previously studied, we report measurements ...of the K-band (2.2 μm) visibilities for four more targets, namely AKN120, IC 4329A, Mrk6, and the radio-loud QSO 3C 273 at z = 0.158. The observed visibilities are quite high for all the targets, which we interpret as an indication of the partial resolution of the dust sublimation region. The effective ring radii derived from the observed visibilities scale approximately with L1/2, where L is the AGN luminosity. Comparing the radii with those from independent optical-infrared reverberation measurements, these data support our previous claim that the interferometric ring radius is either roughly equal to or slightly larger than the reverberation radius. We interpret the ratio of these two radii for a given L as an approximate probe of the radial distribution of the inner accreting material. We show tentative evidence that this inner radial structure might be closely related to the radio-loudness of the central engine. Finally, we re-observed the brightest Seyfert 1 galaxy NGC 4151. Its marginally higher visibility at a shorter projected baseline, compared to our previous measurements obtained one year before, further supports the partial resolution of the inner structure. We did not detect any significant change in the implied emission size when the K-band flux was brightened by a factor of 1.5 over a time interval of one year.
Advancements in infrared (IR) interferometry open up the possibility to spatially resolve active galactic nuclei (AGNs) on the parsec-scale level and study the circumnuclear dust distribution, ...commonly referred to as the "dust torus," that is held responsible for the type 1/type 2 dichotomy of AGNs. We used the mid-IR beam combiner MIDI together with the 8 m telescopes at the Very Large Telescope Interferometer to observe the nucleus of the Seyfert 2 galaxy NGC 424, achieving an almost complete coverage of the uv-plane accessible by the available telescope configurations. We detect extended mid-IR emission with a relatively baseline- and model-independent mid-IR half-light radius of (2.0 + or - 0.2) pc x (1.5 + or - 0.3) pc (averaged over the 8-13 mu m wavelength range). The extended mid-IR source shows an increasing size with wavelength. These properties are in agreement with the idea of dust heated in thermal equilibrium with the AGN. The orientation of the major axis in position angle ~ - 27 is closely aligned with the system axis as set by optical polarization observations. Torus models typically favor extension along the mid-plane at mid-IR wavelengths instead. Therefore, we conclude that the majority of the parsec-scale mid-IR emission (> ~60%) in this type 2 AGN originates from optically thin dust in the polar region of the AGN, a scenario consistent with the near- to far-IR spectral energy distribution. We suggest that a radiatively driven dusty wind, possibly launched in a puffed-up region of the inner hot part of the torus, is responsible for the polar dust. In this picture, the torus dominates the near-IR emission up to about 5 mu m, while the polar dust is the main contributor to the mid-IR flux. Our results of NGC 424 are consistent with recent observations of the AGN in the Circinus galaxy and resemble large-scale characteristics of other objects. If our results reflect a general property of the AGN population, the current paradigm for interpreting and modeling the IR emission of AGNs has to be revised.
PDF
