The article was published without special issue designation resulting in regular issue compilation. The author group and publisher regret the error and ask the article be considered for
Special ...Issue: Subjective approaches to thermal perception.
The future will be warmer with more tropical days, heat stress and related impacts for the healthy and liveable city. This is clear from many scientific studies and papers. Yet many local governments ...in the Netherlands claim to have insufficient understanding of the importance of these impacts in order to make the necessary step to climate adaptation and to take practical actions to manage the risks associated with rising heat levels. They struggle with defining the urgency of heat stress and finding good arguments for the need to adapt urban environments to rising temperatures. In order to provide urban professionals with reasons to adapt their urban environments to heat, we analyzed the potential impacts of urban heat from international policy reports and scientific literature. We summarized the impacts in a mind map. This map visualizes the large number and variety of heat-related risks. They can be subdivided into risks for health, open space, liveability, water and infrastructure networks. We believe that this mind map provides useful insight into the reasons to take heat adaptation actions. It can also be a helpful visual for urban professionals in outlining the reasons to take action for heat adaptation.
•Dutch local governments often have insufficient understanding of urban heat risks to take heat adaptation actions.•Urban heat causes a large number and variety of heat-related risks.•A mind map of the possible urban heat risks provides insights into the reasons to take heat adaptation actions.
To investigate the spatial distribution of the energy- and mass-balance fluxes of a glacier, a two-dimensional mass-balance model was developed and applied to Morteratschgletscher, Switzerland. The ...model is driven by meteorological input from four synoptic weather stations located in the vicinity of Morteratschgletscher. The model results were compared to observations made on the glacier. The calculated mean specific mass balance is −0.47 m w.e. for 1999, and 0.23 m w.e. for 2000. Net shortwave radiation shows a minimum at around 3350 m a.s.l., due to the effects of shading, slope, aspect, reflection from the slopes, and obstruction of the sky. Ignoring these effects results in a 37% increase in the annual incoming shortwave radiation on the glacier, causing 0.34 m w.e. more ablation. A 1°C change in the air temperature results in a shift of 0.67 m w.e. in the mean specific mass balance, while altering the precipitation by 10% causes a change of 0.17 m w.e.
To help general practitioners (GPs) in early identification of patients with palliative care (PC) needs, this pilot study aimed to determine the potential of the combined original surprise question ...(SQ1) ('Would I be surprised if this patient died within the next 12 months?') and the second surprise question (SQ2) ('Would I be surprised if this patient was still alive after 12 months?'). We hypothesized that answering these SQs would trigger them to make a multidimensional care plan.
26 Slovenian GPs, randomized into 4 groups, were invited to write a care plan for each of the four patients described in case vignettes (2 oncologic, 1 organ failure and 1 frailty case). GPs in group 1 were only asked to write a care plan for each patient. GPs in group 2 answered SQ1 and GPs in groups 3 and 4 answered SQ1 and SQ2 before writing the care plan. The type and number of PC aspects mentioned in the respective care plans were quantified into a numeric RADboud ANTicipatory (RADIANT) score.
Mean RADIANT scores in groups 1-4 were 2.2, 3.6, 2.5 and 3.1, respectively. When comparing the different vignettes, vignette B (terminal oncologic patient) scored best (3.6). Mean RADIANT scores in groups 3 and 4 were slightly higher for GPs who would be surprised compared to GPs who would not be surprised if the patient was still alive in 12 months.
The combined SQs were considered helpful in the early identification of patients in need of PC in Slovenian general practice.
Small urban water bodies, like ponds or canals, are often assumed to cool their surroundings during hot periods, when water bodies remain cooler than air during daytime. However, during the night ...they may be warmer. Sufficient fetch is required for thermal effects to reach a height of 1–2 m, relevant for humans. In the ‘Really cooling water bodies in cities’ (REALCOOL) project thermal effects of typical Dutch urban water bodies were explored, using ENVI-met 4.1.3. This model version enables users to specify intensity of turbulent mixing and light absorption of the water, offering improved water temperature simulations. Local thermal effects near individual water bodies were assessed as differences in air temperature and Physiological Equivalent Temperature (PET). The simulations suggest that local thermal effects of small water bodies can be considered negligible in design practice. Afternoon air temperatures in surrounding spaces were reduced by typically 0.2 °C and the maximum cooling effect was 0.6 °C. Typical PET reduction was 0.6 °C, with a maximum of 1.9 °C. Night-time warming effects are even smaller. However, the immediate surroundings of small water bodies can become cooler by means of shading from trees, fountains or water mists, and natural ventilation. Such interventions induce favorable changes in daytime PET.
•Thermal effects of eight types of small urban water bodies were explored•New functionality of ENVI-met allows realistic simulation of water temperature•Daytime cooling by water is small: ≤0.6 °C for air temperature, ≤1.9 °C for PET•Night-time warming effects are even smaller and can also be neglected•Shading and ventilation interventions allow cooler water environments
► The surface heat island of Rotterdam was quantified from satellite images. ► The spatial pattern of the surface heat island differs between day and night. ► The images showed that the maximum ...daytime surface heat island is 10°C. ► Surface characteristics explain the spatial variation in the surface heat island. ► A 10% increase in the green area decreases the surface heat island by 1.3°C.
Thermal infrared high resolution satellite images from Landsat sensors were used to spatially quantify the surface heat island (SHI) of Rotterdam in the Netherlands. Based on surface temperature maps retrieved on 15 summer days since 1984, the average surface temperature of each district and neighbourhood within the city was compared to the rural surface temperature outside the city, defined as the SHI intensity. The results showed that the daytime SHI intensity of Rotterdam can be as large as 10°C. Differences in the SHI between the neighbourhoods can be explained by urban surface characteristics. A statistical analysis shows that the SHI is largest for neighbourhoods with scarce vegetation that have a high fraction of impervious surface, and a low albedo. Furthermore, NOAA-AVHHR satellite images were used to monitor the heat wave of July 2006 and retrieve the diurnal variation in the SHI of Rotterdam. Average surface temperature differences between the warmest and coolest districts are maximum 12°C during day, and 9°C during night. Districts with a large night-time SHI differ from districts with a large daytime SHI.
Since it is insufficiently clear to urban planners in the Netherlands to what extent design measures can reduce heat stress and which urban spaces are most comfortable, this study evaluates the ...impact of shading, urban water, and urban green on the thermal comfort of urban spaces during hot summer afternoons. The methods used include field surveys, meteorological measurements, and assessment of the PET (physiological equivalent temperature). In total, 21 locations in Amsterdam (shaded and sunny locations in parks, streets, squares, and near water bodies) were investigated. Measurements show a reduction in PET of 12 to 22 °C in spaces shaded by trees and buildings compared to sunlit areas, while water bodies and grass reduce the PET up to 4 °C maximum compared to impervious areas. Differences in air temperature between the locations are generally small and it is concluded that shading, water and grass reduce the air temperature by roughly 1 °C. The surveys (
n
= 1928) indicate that especially shaded areas are perceived cooler and more comfortable than sunlit locations, whereas urban spaces near water or green spaces (grass) were not perceived as cooler or thermally more comfortable. The results of this study highlight the importance of shading in urban design to reduce heat stress. The paper also discusses the differences between meteorological observations and field surveys for planning and designing cool and comfortable urban spaces. Meteorological measurements provide measurable quantities which are especially useful for setting or meeting target values or guidelines in reducing urban heat in practice.
This investigation uses Landsat images from 12 days in 1999 and 2000 to study the spatial and temporal variation in surface albedo of a glacier with a rugged topography: Morteratschgletscher, ...Switzerland. Our retrieval method considers all processes that substantially influence the relationship between the satellite signal and the surface albedo. The correction for the anisotropy of the reflected radiation field of ice and snow ranges up to 0.10, depending on wavelength band, solar zenith angle and surface type. We analyzed the uncertainties in the retrieval method and mainly expect errors in satellite-derived albedos for areas with large variation in topography and high albedos. The latter is due to application of bidirectional reflectance distribution function (BRDF) parameterizations for the anisotropic correction to albedos outside the parameterizations’ validity. On average, satellite-derived albedos exceed the measured surface albedo by 0.03. The glacier tongue is characterized by bands of low and high albedo, relating to ice with higher and lower concentrations of debris. The ice albedo shows no dependence on altitude, except at 2000–2200 m a.s.l. It increases during summer, which is likely associated with rainfall, as concluded from a comparison between summer rainfall and measured albedos.
This article explores how the combination of research approaches in Research Through Design (RTD) can contribute to generating applicable urban design knowledge. The article is based on learnings ...from the 'Really cooling water bodies in cities' project, a pragmatist RTD combining post-positivist, constructivist and transformative/participatory approaches along six design iterations. The results indicate that the combination of research approaches in RTD can contribute to generating applicable urban design knowledge when the approaches are carefully chosen and combined as to provide feedback on each other, based on a coherent rationale driven by clear research questions and goals.
•Visual design guidelines benefit from concepts Visual Clarity, Trust and Interest.•Concepts, representation objectives and options must be fine-tuned.•Level of detail and balance ...site-specificity/abstraction are challenging.•Microclimatic processes should be made visible without distorting them.•Short and attractive animated visualizations gather more interest from designers.
Communication of climate-responsive urban design guidelines is becoming increasingly relevant in the light of climate adaptation challenges in cities. Widespread uptake in practice of such guidelines can be promoted by visualizations of the principles on which they are based. The “Really cooling water bodies in cities” research project developed and tested the required knowledge on visual communication. Evidence-based design guidelines assisting designers with creating cooler urban water environments were developed and communicated with 3D animations. The animations were shaped according to three core theoretical criteria about visual representations: “visual clarity”, “trust” and “interest”. We assessed in how far these criteria were met in an inquiry with design professionals, the target group of the design guidelines. The article concludes with recommendations for developing visual design guidelines in climate-responsive urban design: to weigh the level of detail, components and balance between site-specificity/abstraction (“visual clarity”); to make microclimatic processes visible without distorting them (“trust”); and to keep timing short and visual attractiveness high (“interest”). It is argued that taking these aspects into account and setting a clear correspondence between theoretical concepts, representation objectives and options, can largely benefit visual design guidelines communicating climate-responsive urban design knowledge.
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