The M4 muscarinic acetylcholine (ACh) receptor (mAChR) is a potential therapeutic target but characterized by a lack of subtype-selective ligands. We recently generated "designer receptors ...exclusively activated by a designer drug" (DREADDs), which contained mutations of two conserved orthosteric-site residues (Y113C/A203G in the M4 mAChR) that caused a loss of ACh activity but a gain in responsiveness to clozapine-N-oxide (CNO). The current study characterized the interactions of the wild type and the M4 DREADD with a range of agonists, antagonists, and the recently discovered M4 mAChR allosteric potentiator, 3-amino-5-chloro-6-methoxy-4-methyl-thieno2,3-bpyridine-2-carboxylic acid cyclopropylamide (LY2033298). LY2033298 displayed positive binding cooperativity with ACh, neutral cooperativity with the antagonist, 3Hquinuclidinyl benzilate, and agonism for activation of phosphorylated extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) 1/2 at the wild-type M4 mAChR. LY2033298's cooperativity with clozapine or CNO was weakly positive with respect to binding but profoundly negative with respect to LY2033298 signaling. Although the DREADD mutations increased the binding and function of clozapine-like compounds, all other agonists lost the ability to activate the mutant; for the orthosteric agonists ACh and pilocarpine, this was due partly to a reduced affinity, whereas the affinity of LY2033298 or the atypical agonist 4-I-3-chlorophenylcarbamoyloxy)-2-butynyltrimethylammnonium chloride was unaltered. The interaction between LY2033298 and clozapine-like compounds reverted to neutral cooperativity on the DREADD, whereas LY2033298 caused a striking functional rescue of ACh potency and efficacy at the DREADD. These results provide conclusive evidence for the retention of a functional allosteric site on the M4 DREADD and highlight a role for residues Tyr113 and Ala203 in the transmission of cooperativity.
We investigated Toll-like receptors (TLR-3, -4 and -7) expression in circulating mononuclear cells of patients with immunoglobulin A nephropathy (IgAN), a disease with debated relationships with ...mucosal immunity. TLR-4 expression (detected by fluorescence activated cell sorter) and mRNA transcriptional levels (Taqman) were significantly higher in patients with IgAN than in healthy controls (P = 0·00200 and P = 0·0200). TLR-3 and TLR-7 were not modified significantly. In IgAN patients proteinuria was correlated significantly with TLR-4 expression (P = 0·0312). In a group of nephrotic syndromes, TLR-3, -4 and -7 expression was similar to healthy controls. A significant difference in TLR-4 expression and mRNA levels was found between very active IgAN patients (proteinuria > 1 g/1·73 m²/day in association with severe microscopic haematuria) and inactive patients (proteinuria < 0·5 g/1·73 m²/day, with absent or minimal haematuria). No correlation with levels of aberrantly glycosylated IgA1, age, renal biopsy features or therapy was found. This study shows for the first time an up-regulation of TLR-4 in circulating mononuclear cells of patients with IgAN, particularly in association with proteinuria and heavy microscopic haematuria.
The present study examined the effect of a range of doses of chronic nicotine (0.75, 1.5, 3.0 and 30.0 mg kg−1 day−1, s.c., 14 days) upon striatal dopaminergic nerve terminal survival following ...6‐hydroxydopamine (6‐OHDA; 10 μg intrastriatal unilaterally) in rats; and the effects of acute nicotine (1 mg kg−1, s.c.) pretreatment upon striatal neurodegeneration induced by methamphetamine (5 mg kg−1, i.p., three doses at 2 h intervals) in wild‐type and α4 nicotinic receptor (nAChR) subunit knockout mice.
In both models of Parkinsonian‐like damage, loss of striatal dopaminergic nerve terminals was assessed by 3H‐mazindol autoradiography.
In rats, chronic nicotine infusion delivered by osmotic minipump implanted subcutaneously 7 days prior to intrastriatal 6‐OHDA injection produced significant and dose‐related protection against 6‐OHDA‐induced neurodegeneration. Low (0.75 and 1.5 mg kg−1 day−1) but not high (3.0 and 30.0 mg kg−1 day−1) nicotine doses significantly inhibited 6‐OHDA‐induced degeneration.
In wild‐type mice, acute nicotine treatment produced significant inhibition of methamphetamine‐induced neurodegeneration. In α4 nAChR subunit knockout mice, acute nicotine treatment failed to inhibit methamphetamine‐induced neurodegeneration.
Nicotine is capable of protecting dopaminergic neurons against Parkinsonian‐like neurodegeneration in vivo. In rats, this neuroprotective effect is critically dependent upon nicotine dose and is consistent with the activation of nAChRs, as high, desensitizing doses of nicotine fail to be neuroprotective. Further, neuroprotection is absent in α4 nAChR subunit knockout mice. The current results therefore suggest that activation of α4 subunit containing nAChRs constitutes a major component of the neuroprotective effect of nicotine upon Parkinsonian‐like damage in vivo.
British Journal of Pharmacology (2001) 132, 1650–1656; doi:10.1038/sj.bjp.0703989
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE We recently characterized LY2033298 as a novel allosteric modulator and agonist at M4 muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (mAChRs). Evidence also suggested a difference in the ...potency of LY2033298 at rodent relative to human M4 mAChRs. The current study investigated the basis for the species difference of this modulator and used this knowledge to rationalize its in vivo actions.
EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH LY2033298 was investigated in vitro in CHO cells stably expressing human or mouse M4 mAChRs, using assays of agonist‐induced ERK1/2 or GSK‐3α phosphorylation, 35S‐GTPγS binding, or effects on equilibrium binding of 3H‐NMS and ACh. The in vivo actions of LY2033298 were investigated in a mouse model of amphetamine‐induced locomotor activity. The function of LY2033298 was examined in combination with ACh, oxotremorine or xanomeline.
KEY RESULTS LY2033298 had similar affinities for the human and mouse M4 mAChRs. However, LY2033298 had a lower positive co‐operativity with ACh at the mouse relative to the human M4 mAChR. At the mouse M4 mAChR, LY2033298 showed higher co‐operativity with oxotremorine than with ACh or xanomeline. The different degrees of co‐operativity between LY2033298 and each agonist at the mouse relative to the human M4 mAChR necessitated the co‐administration of LY2033298 with oxotremorine in order to show in vivo efficacy of LY2033298.
CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS These results provide evidence for species variability when comparing the allosteric interaction between LY2033298 and ACh at the M4 mAChR, and also highlight how the interaction between LY2033298 and different orthosteric ligands is subject to ‘probe dependence’. This has implications for the validation of allosteric modulator actions in vivo.
We recently identified LY2033298 as a novel allosteric potentiator of acetylcholine (ACh) at the M(4) muscarinic acetylcholine receptor (mAChR). This study characterized the molecular mode of action ...of this modulator in both recombinant and native systems. Radioligand-binding studies revealed that LY2033298 displayed a preference for the active state of the M(4) mAChR, manifested as a potentiation in the binding affinity of ACh (but not antagonists) and an increase in the proportion of high-affinity agonist-receptor complexes. This property accounted for the robust allosteric agonism displayed by the modulator in recombinant cells in assays of (35)SGTPgammaS binding, extracellular regulated kinase 1/2 phosphorylation, glycogen synthase kinase 3beta phosphorylation, and receptor internalization. We also found that the extent of modulation by LY2033298 differed depending on the signaling pathway, indicating that LY2033298 engenders functional selectivity in the actions of ACh. This property was retained in NG108-15 cells, which natively express rodent M(4) mAChRs. Functional interaction studies between LY2033298 and various orthosteric and allosteric ligands revealed that its site of action overlaps with the allosteric site used by prototypical mAChR modulators. Importantly, LY2033298 reduced (3)HACh release from rat striatal slices, indicating retention of its ability to allosterically potentiate endogenous ACh in situ. Moreover, its ability to potentiate oxotremorine-mediated inhibition of condition avoidance responding in rodents was significantly attenuated in M(4) mAChR knockout mice, validating the M(4) mAChR as a key target of action of this novel allosteric ligand.
Abstract Rearing rats in single cages from weaning until adulthood (social isolation) produces a number of behavioral and neurochemical alterations similar to those observed in psychoses such as ...schizophrenia. Also, a dysregulation of the endocannabinoid system has been implicated in schizophrenia. The aim of this study was to examine the effect of social isolation on changes to mRNA expression of 1) the cannabinoid receptor CB1 , 2) enzymes responsible for the synthesis of the endocannabinoids anandamide ( N -acyl phosphatidylethanolamine-phospholipase D or NAPE-PLD) and 2-arachidonoyl-glycerol or 2-AG (diacylglycerol lipase or DAGL isozymes α and β) and 3) enzymes that degrade endocannabinoids (fatty acid amide hydrolase/FAAH for anandamide, and monoacylglycerol lipase/MAGL for 2-AG). Twenty-one-day post natal rats were randomly housed individually, or in groups of 6, for 8 weeks. CB1 receptor, DAGLα and DAGLβ, MAGL and FAAH mRNA levels were measured in the brains using in situ hybridization histochemistry. CB1 receptor, DAGLα, DAGLβ, MAGL and NAPE-PLD mRNA expression levels were significantly higher in a number of brain regions from socially isolated rats; particularly in the prefrontal regions, cortical layers and a number of thalamic regions. DAGLβ mRNA was significantly higher in the substantia nigra and ventral tegmental area. FAAH mRNA expression was significantly lower in a number of prefrontal regions, the cortical layers and in the caudate putamen and other associated areas of socially isolated rats. Such differences in endocannabinoid system mRNA in brains of socially isolated rats compared to normal rats further supports the potential importance of the endocannabinoid system in psychotic disease states.
BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE We recently characterized LY2033298 as a novel allosteric modulator and agonist at M 4 muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (mAChRs). Evidence also suggested a difference in the ...potency of LY2033298 at rodent relative to human M 4 mAChRs. The current study investigated the basis for the species difference of this modulator and used this knowledge to rationalize its in vivo actions. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH LY2033298 was investigated in vitro in CHO cells stably expressing human or mouse M 4 mAChRs, using assays of agonist‐induced ERK1/2 or GSK‐3α phosphorylation, 35 S‐GTPγS binding, or effects on equilibrium binding of 3 H‐NMS and ACh. The in vivo actions of LY2033298 were investigated in a mouse model of amphetamine‐induced locomotor activity. The function of LY2033298 was examined in combination with ACh, oxotremorine or xanomeline. KEY RESULTS LY2033298 had similar affinities for the human and mouse M 4 mAChRs. However, LY2033298 had a lower positive co‐operativity with ACh at the mouse relative to the human M 4 mAChR. At the mouse M 4 mAChR, LY2033298 showed higher co‐operativity with oxotremorine than with ACh or xanomeline. The different degrees of co‐operativity between LY2033298 and each agonist at the mouse relative to the human M 4 mAChR necessitated the co‐administration of LY2033298 with oxotremorine in order to show in vivo efficacy of LY2033298. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS These results provide evidence for species variability when comparing the allosteric interaction between LY2033298 and ACh at the M 4 mAChR, and also highlight how the interaction between LY2033298 and different orthosteric ligands is subject to ‘probe dependence’. This has implications for the validation of allosteric modulator actions in vivo .
The proteasome to immunoproteasome (iPS) switch consists of β1, β2 and β5 subunit replacement by low molecular weight protein 2 (LMP2), LMP7 and multicatalytic endopeptidase-like complex-1 (MECL1) ...subunits, resulting in a more efficient peptide preparation for major histocompatibility complex 1 (MHC-I) presentation. It is activated by toll-like receptor (TLR) agonists and interferons and may also be influenced by genetic variation. In a previous study we found an iPS upregulation in peripheral cells of patients with immunoglobulin A nephropathy (IgAN). We aimed to investigate in 157 IgAN patients enrolled through the multinational Validation Study of the Oxford Classification of IgAN (VALIGA) study the relationships between iPS switch and estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) modifications from renal biopsy to sampling. Patients had a previous long follow-up (6.4 years in median) that allowed an accurate calculation of their slope of renal function decline. We also evaluated the effects of the PSMB8/PSMB9 locus (rs9357155) associated with IgAN in genome-wide association studies and the expression of messenger RNAs (mRNAs) encoding for TLRs and CD46, a C3 convertase inhibitor, acting also on T-regulatory cell promotion, found to have reduced expression in progressive IgAN. We detected an upregulation of LMP7/β5 and LMP2/β1 switches. We observed no genetic effect of rs9357155. TLR4 and TLR2 mRNAs were found to be significantly associated with iPS switches, particularly TLR4 and LMP7/β5 (P < 0.0001). The LMP7/β5 switch was significantly associated with the rate of eGFR loss (P = 0.026), but not with eGFR at biopsy. Fast progressors (defined as the loss of eGFR >75th centile, i.e. −1.91 mL/min/1.73 m2/year) were characterized by significantly elevated LMP7/β5 mRNA (P = 0.04) and low CD46 mRNA expression (P < 0.01). A multivariate logistic regression model, categorizing patients by different levels of kidney disease progression, showed a high prediction value for the combination of high LMP7/β5 and low CD46 expression.
Abstract
Background
Complement is thought to play a role in immunoglobulin A nephropathy (IgAN), though the activating mechanisms are unknown. This study focused on the gene expression of CD46 and ...CD55, two key molecules for regulating C3 convertase activity of lectin and alternative complement pathways at a cellular level.
Methods
The transcriptional expression in peripheral white blood cells (WBCs) of CD46 and CD55 was investigated in 157 patients enrolled by the Validation of the Oxford Classification of IgAN group, looking for correlations with clinical and pathology features and estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) modifications from renal biopsy to sampling. Patients had a previous median follow-up of 6.4 (interquartile range 2.8–10.7) years and were divided into progressors and non-progressors according to the median value of their velocity of loss of renal function per year (−0.41 mL/min/1.73 m2/year).
Results
CD46 and CD55 messenger RNA (mRNA) expression in WBCs was not correlated with eGFR values or proteinuria at sampling. CD46 mRNA was significantly correlated with eGFR decline rate as a continuous outcome variable (P = 0.014). A significant difference was found in CD46 gene expression between progressors and non-progressors (P = 0.013). CD46 and CD55 mRNA levels were significantly correlated (P < 0.01), although no difference between progressors and non-progressors was found for CD55 mRNA values. The prediction of progression was increased when CD46 and CD55 mRNA expressions were added to clinical data at renal biopsy (eGFR, proteinuria and mean arterial blood pressure) and Oxford MEST-C (mesangial hypercellularity, endocapillary hypercellularity, segmental glomerulosclerosis, tubular atrophy/interstitial fibrosis, presence of any crescents) score.
Conclusions
Patients with progressive IgAN showed lower expression of mRNA encoding for the complement inhibitory protein CD46, which may implicate a defective regulation of C3 convertase with uncontrolled complement activation.
Noradrenaline is known to modulate memory formation in the mammalian hippocampus. We have examined how noradrenaline and selective beta-adrenoceptor (AR) agonists affect memory consolidation and how ...antagonists inhibit memory consolidation in the avian hippocampus. Injection of selective beta-AR agonists and antagonists at specific times within 30 min of a weakly or strongly reinforced, single-trial, bead discrimination learning test in 1-day-old chicks allowed us to determine the pattern of beta-AR involvement in hippocampal memory processing. Different beta-AR subtypes were recruited in temporal sequence after learning in the order beta(1), beta(3), and beta(2.) We provide evidence that the effect of manipulation of beta(1)-ARs by selective agonists and antagonists within 2.5 min of training parallels the action of NMDA receptor agonists and antagonists. Activation of beta(3)- and beta(2)-ARs facilitated memory but utilized different mechanisms: beta(3)-ARs by stimulating glucose uptake and metabolism, and beta(2)-ARs by increasing the breakdown of glycogen--with both metabolic events occurring in astrocytes and affecting intermediate memory. The different receptors are activated at different times within the lifetime of labile memory and within 30 min of learning. We have defined separate roles for the three beta-ARs in memory and demonstrated that the avian hippocampus is involved in learning and memory in much the same way as the hippocampus in the mammalian brain.
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