Examining development is essential for a full understanding of behaviour, including how individuals acquire traits and how adaptive evolutionary forces shape these processes. The present study ...explores the development of cooperative behaviour among the Agta, a Filipino hunter-gatherer population. A simple resource allocation game assessing both levels of cooperation (how much children shared) and patterns of partner choice (who they shared with) was played with 179 children between the ages of 3 and 18. Children were given five resources (candies) and for each was asked whether to keep it for themselves or share with someone else, and if so, who this was. Between-camp variation in children's cooperative behaviour was substantial, and the only strong predictor of children's cooperation was the average level of cooperation among adults in camp; that is, children were more cooperative in camps where adults were more cooperative. Neither age, sex, relatedness or parental levels of cooperation were strongly associated with the amount children shared. Children preferentially shared with close kin (especially siblings), although older children increasingly shared with less-related individuals. Findings are discussed in terms of their implications for understanding cross-cultural patterns of children's cooperation, and broader links with human cooperative childcare and life history evolution.
Storytelling is a human universal. From gathering around the camp-fire telling tales of ancestors to watching the latest television box-set, humans are inveterate producers and consumers of stories. ...Despite its ubiquity, little attention has been given to understanding the function and evolution of storytelling. Here we explore the impact of storytelling on hunter-gatherer cooperative behaviour and the individual-level fitness benefits to being a skilled storyteller. Stories told by the Agta, a Filipino hunter-gatherer population, convey messages relevant to coordinating behaviour in a foraging ecology, such as cooperation, sex equality and egalitarianism. These themes are present in narratives from other foraging societies. We also show that the presence of good storytellers is associated with increased cooperation. In return, skilled storytellers are preferred social partners and have greater reproductive success, providing a pathway by which group-beneficial behaviours, such as storytelling, can evolve via individual-level selection. We conclude that one of the adaptive functions of storytelling among hunter gatherers may be to organise cooperation.
Abstract
Causal inference from observational data is notoriously difficult, and relies upon many unverifiable assumptions, including no confounding or selection bias. Here, we demonstrate how to ...apply a range of sensitivity analyses to examine whether a causal interpretation from observational data may be justified. These methods include: testing different confounding structures (as the assumed confounding model may be incorrect), exploring potential residual confounding and assessing the impact of selection bias due to missing data. We aim to answer the causal question ‘Does religiosity promote cooperative behaviour?’ as a motivating example of how these methods can be applied. We use data from the parental generation of a large-scale (
n
= approximately 14,000) prospective UK birth cohort (the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children), which has detailed information on religiosity and potential confounding variables, while cooperation was measured via self-reported history of blood donation. In this study, there was no association between religious belief or affiliation and blood donation. Religious attendance was positively associated with blood donation, but could plausibly be explained by unmeasured confounding. In this population, evidence that religiosity causes blood donation is suggestive, but rather weak. These analyses illustrate how sensitivity analyses can aid causal inference from observational research.
Religious/spiritual beliefs and behaviours (RSBB) have been associated with health outcomes, with diet a potential mediator of this relationship. We therefore explored whether RSBB were associated ...with differences in diet.
Dietary patterns and nutrient intakes were derived from food frequency questionnaire completed by pregnant women in 1991-1992 (mean age = 28·3 years, range = 15-46) and by the mothers and partners 4 years post-partum (mothers mean age = 32·3, range = 19-49; partners mean age = 34·5, range = 18-74). RSBB exposures measured in pregnancy included religious belief, affiliation and attendance. We first explored whether RSBBs were associated with dietary patterns in confounder-adjusted linear regression models. If associations were found, we examined whether RSBB were associated with nutrient intake (linear regression) and following nutrient intake guidelines (logistic regression).
Prospective birth cohort study in Southwest England (Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children; ALSPAC).
13 689 enrolled mothers and their associated partners.
In pregnant women, RSBB were associated with higher 'traditional' (i.e. 'meat and two veg') and lower 'vegetarian' dietary pattern scores. Religious attendance and non-Christian religious affiliation were associated with higher 'health-conscious' dietary pattern scores. Religious attendance was associated with increased micronutrient intake and following recommended micronutrient intake guidelines, with weaker effects for religious belief and affiliation. Comparable patterns were observed for mothers and partners 4 years post-partum, although associations between RSBB and nutrient intakes were weaker for partners.
RSBBs are associated with broad dietary patterns and nutrient intake in this cohort. If these reflect causal relationships, diet may potentially mediate the pathway between RSBB and health.
Background
Neuroticism represents a personality disposition towards experiencing negative emotions more frequently and intensely. Longitudinal studies suggest that neuroticism increases risk of ...several psychological problems. Improved understanding of how this trait manifests in early life could help inform preventative strategies in those liable to neuroticism.
Methods
This study explored how a polygenic risk score for neuroticism (NEU PRS) is expressed from infancy to late childhood across various psychological outcomes using multivariable linear and ordinal regression models. In addition, we employed a three‐level mixed‐effect model to characterise child internalising and externalising trajectories and estimate how a child PRS associated with both their overall levels and rates of change in 5279 children aged 3–11 in the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children cohort.
Results
We found evidence that the NEU PRS was associated with a more emotionally sensitive temperament in early infancy in addition to higher emotional and behavioural problems and a higher risk of meeting diagnostic criteria for a variety of clinical disorders, particularly anxiety disorders, in childhood. The NEU PRS was associated with overall levels of internalising and externalising trajectories, with a larger magnitude of association on the internalising trajectory. The PRS was also associated with slower rates of reduction of internalising problems across childhood.
Conclusions
Our findings using a large, well‐characterised birth cohort study suggest that phenotypic manifestations of a PRS for adult neuroticism can be detected as early as in infancy and that this PRS associates with several mental health problems and differences in emotional trajectories across childhood.
We examined the association between a polygenic risk score for neuroticism and a host of psychological outcomes in addition to its association with trajectories of emotional and behavioural problems in the Children of the 90s. We found that the PRS associated with a more difficult temperament, more emotional and behavioural problems, and greater risk of being diagnosed with a clinical disorder in childhood. The PRS was also associated with higher levels of emotional and behavioural problems trajectories and dampened recovery from emotional problems across childhood.
A fundamental objective of modern zoos is promoting pro-environmental behaviors. This study experimentally assessed the contribution of zoo rangers (staff employed to engage visitors) in delivering a ...behavior change campaign promoting sustainable palm oil use. The campaign was delivered in a dedicated area in a walk-through animal exhibit, with rangers either "present" or "absent" in the campaign space. Questionnaires assessing awareness, knowledge, and purchasing intentions were completed by 1032 visitors. Two analyses were conducted: (1) comparing the impact of ranger presence versus absence (to assess the overall impact of having rangers present regardless of whether they talked to visitors) and (2) comparing the impact of talking to a ranger against demographically matched individuals visiting when rangers were absent (to assess the specific impact of talking to a ranger). Visitors who talked to rangers were more aware of palm oil, had more knowledge, and greater intentions of purchasing sustainable palm oil. However, as only one-quarter of visitors talked to a ranger, fewer differences were found comparing ranger presence versus absence. These findings suggest that rangers can be instrumental in communicating complex conservation issues and delivering zoo-based behavior change campaigns, but their impact is limited by low engagement rates.
Humans regularly cooperate with non-kin, which has been theorized to require reciprocity between repeatedly interacting and trusting individuals. However, the role of repeated interactions has not ...previously been demonstrated in explaining real-world patterns of hunter–gatherer cooperation. Here we explore cooperation among the Agta, a population of Filipino hunter–gatherers, using data from both actual resource transfers and two experimental games across multiple camps. Patterns of cooperation vary greatly between camps and depend on socio-ecological context. Stable camps (with fewer changes in membership over time) were associated with greater reciprocal sharing, indicating that an increased likelihood of future interactions facilitates reciprocity. This is the first study reporting an association between reciprocal cooperation and hunter–gatherer band stability. Under conditions of low camp stability individuals still acquire resources from others, but do so via demand sharing (taking from others), rather than based on reciprocal considerations. Hunter–gatherer cooperation may either be characterized as reciprocity or demand sharing depending on socio-ecological conditions.
Background
The Covid-19 pandemic and related public health measures, including lockdowns and school closures, have impacted on mental health of children.
Aims and hypothesis
We hypothesised that ...there would be an association between maintaining a routine during lockdown and both lower emotional and behavioural difficulties in children and lower parental anxiety. Routine was taken as keeping to the same basic activities such as mealtimes and bedtimes. We also hypothesised that children of ‘keyworker’ parents would have fewer emotional and behavioural symptoms due to having maintained more normal routines. The key reason was that children of keyworkers still attended school or nursery and parents would have been getting up and coming home at the same times as pre-Covid. Keyworker status was defined as those whose work was essential to Covid-19 response, including work in health and social care and other key sectors.
Methods
We used data from the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC) to explore associations between maintaining a routine, and emotional and behavioural difficulties in children, using linear regression models. All eligible ALSPAC-G2 participants were sent the survey and the responders are representative of the eligible G2 population. We included measures of parental anxiety. We separately explored associations with having a keyworker parent. We used the Carey Infant Temperament Questionnaire and the Revised Rutter Parent Scale for Preschool Children to establish levels of emotional and behavioural difficulties. The measures were chosen to match previous waves in multi-generations in ALSPAC where they had been shown to be predictive of later mental health in children. The scales measure emotional and behavioural problems.
Results
Two hundred eighty-nine parents completed questionnaires about their 411 children. Keeping a routine was associated with emotional and behavioural difficulty scores 5.0 points lower (95% CI −10.0 to −0.1),
p
= 0.045 than not keeping a routine. Parents who reported keeping a routine had anxiety scores 4.3 points lower (95% CI −7.5 to −1.1),
p
= 0.009 than those who did not. Children of keyworkers tended to have lower emotional and behavioural difficulty scores −3.1 (95%CI −6.26 to 0.08),
p
= 0.056 than children of non-keyworkers. All models were adjusted for relevant potential confounders.
Conclusion
Maintaining a routine may be beneficial for both child emotional wellbeing and parental anxiety, although it is also possible that lower parental anxiety levels made maintaining a routine easier. Being the child of a keyworker parent during lockdown may have been protective for child emotional wellbeing.
Background
: Many factors are believed to shape an individual’s religious/spiritual beliefs and behaviours (RSBB) as part of their wider social behaviour, including psychological traits such as ...intelligence, personality and social cognition. To explore these patterns further, we examined associations between multiple psychological factors and RSBBs in the offspring and parental generations of the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC).
Methods:
Three RSBB outcome measures were assessed: religious belief (belief in God/a divine power; yes/not sure/no), religious affiliation (Christian/none/other) and religious attendance (frequency of attendance at a place of worship) in approximately 4,400 offspring (aged 28 years), 12,000 mothers and 9,500 of their partners from a prospective birth cohort study in Southwest England (ALSPAC). We explored age-adjusted (and sex-adjusted for offspring) associations between various psychological factors and each of the RSBB outcomes using multinomial regression. These psychological factors included intelligence/cognitive ability, personality, social cognition, locus of control, prosociality and self-esteem. Exposure-sex interactions were also examined for offspring, and exposure-age interactions for parents.
Results
: Many psychological factors were associated with RSBB in this cohort, although relationships sometimes differed between cohorts or by RSBB outcome. For instance, in both offspring and mothers, intelligence scores were negatively associated with religious belief and affiliation, but positively associated with religious attendance. An external locus of control was negatively associated with religious belief and attendance in mothers and partners, but little association with religious belief was found in the offspring generation. Some age- and sex-interactions were reported. Most pseudo-
R
2
values were below 0.5%.
Conclusion
: Psychological factors are associated with RSBB in this population, although they explain relatively little of the variation in RSBB. Results are correlational, but suggest that associations between psychological factors and RSBB are present, and can be explored in more detail in future work to assess whether these relationships are causal.
Background
: We explored associations between possible demographic and socioeconomic causes of religious/spiritual beliefs and behaviours (RSBB) in the parental generation of the Avon Longitudinal ...Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC).
Methods
:
We used a prospective birth cohort study (ALSPAC) in Southwest England with 14,157 enrolled mothers and 14,154 associated partners.
Three RSBB outcome measures collected during pregnancy were examined: religious belief (belief in God/a divine power; yes/not sure/no), religious affiliation (Christian/none/other) and religious attendance (frequency of attendance at a place of worship). Multiple demographic and socioeconomic exposures were assessed (23 in mothers and 22 in partners). We explored age-adjusted associations between each exposure and outcome using multinomial regression, in addition to exposure-age interactions.
Results
: Many demographic and socioeconomic factors were associated with RSBB, including age, ethnicity, marital status, education, income and deprivation. Overall, higher socioeconomic position was associated with increased levels of RSBB, particularly regarding religious attendance. For instance, compared to mothers with the lowest level of educational attainment, a degree-level education was associated with a six-fold increase in the relative risk ratio of religious attendance at least once a week, relative to not attending at all (RRR=5.90; 95% CI=4.44; 7.86). The magnitude of these associations often varied by outcome, e.g., income was associated with religious attendance, but only weakly with religious affiliation. Although results were demographically and socially patterned, overall effect sizes were relatively small, with a largest pseudo-
R
2
value of 2.4%. Patterns of association were similar for mothers and partners.
Conclusion
: The observed positive association between socioeconomic position and RSBB is contrary to much previous theoretical and empirical work. Potential reasons for these differences are discussed, including cross-cultural variation in religiosity and state support, and differences between RSBB measures. This descriptive paper can also help inform future studies using these data regarding the consideration of appropriate confounders.
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