Background
Infection control is critical to providing high‐quality patient care. Many veterinary teaching hospitals (VTHs) utilize footbaths or footmats at entrances and key control points throughout ...the facility to decrease trafficking of pathogenic microorganism on contaminated footwear.
Hypothesis/Objectives
To compare efficacy of 4 disinfectants used in footmats for decreasing bacterial contamination of footwear in a large animal hospital.
Animals
A single adult dairy cow was housed in a stall for 4 days to facilitate stall contamination with fecal material.
Methods
Overboots were experimentally contaminated with organic material in a standardized manner. Each boot was randomly assigned to 1 of 5 treatments (no treatment, or exposure to 1 of 4 disinfectants: an accelerated peroxygen AHP, a peroxygen VIRKON, a quaternary ammonium QUAT, and a phenolic disinfectant PHENOLIC) by stepping on a soaked footmat and collecting samples from boot soles. Generalized linear modeling was used to analyze differences in bacterial counts.
Results
Reductions in colony‐forming units (CFUs) on treated boots ranged from no detectable reduction to 0.45 log10 and varied by disinfectant. Percentage reductions in total bacterial counts generally were larger (albeit still modest) for AHP and QUAT disinfectants (range 37–45%) and smallest for the PHENOLIC (no detectable reduction).
Conclusions and Clinical Importance
In general, use of disinfectant footmats was associated with significant reductions in viable bacteria on overboots—albeit with variable efficacy. Footmats may be useful adjuncts to cleaning and disinfection programs for decreasing trafficking of microorganisms throughout VTHs but should not be considered as a sole prevention method.
Canine herpesvirus-1 (CaHV-1) is a globally distributed pathogen causing reproductive, respiratory, ocular and neurological disorders in adult dogs and neonatal death in puppies. This pathogen is ...considered poorly immunogenic, and neutralizing antibodies are found for only a short time following exposure. Further, seroprevalence can be affected by several epidemiological factors. A virological survey was conducted in a high-density population breeding kennel in Central Italy. There were several factors predisposing animals to CaHV-1 infection, such as age, number of pregnancies, experience with mating and dog shows, cases of abortion, management and environmental hygiene. Serum neutralization (SN) and nested PCR assays were used to estimate prevalence of CaHV-1. None of the submitted samples tested positive for nested PCR, and none of the sera tested CaHV-1 positive. No association was observed between antibody titers and risk factors, and no sign of viral reactivation was detected in either males or females. These results suggest that CaHV-1 is not circulating within this kennel and that further studies are needed in order to better understand the distribution of the virus within Italy.
A public trout hatchery in Colorado recorded repeat episodes of morbidity and mortality in early life stages of Rainbow Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) stocks. The water source for the affected tanks is ...a groundwater well with a pH of 6.3 and a ferrous iron concentration of 120 µg/L. Iron oxidizing bacteria (FeOB) were suspected as the underlying cause due to insoluble red particulate matter (iron oxide precipitate) in the water, and the presence of thick red slime (biofilm) that coated tanks and pipes of the facility and adhered to gills, opercula, and fins of fry. On necropsy, gill and fin clippings from moribund fish had mats of adherent red‐orange material. Histopathology revealed severe diffuse proliferative branchitis. There was abundant debris including granular to sheath‐like and stalk‐like pigmented material within the oral and branchial chambers, intimately associated with gill filaments. A Gram preparation demonstrated florid Gram‐negative bacteria within this debris. A Perls’ Prussian blue preparation revealed colocalization of abundant iron. Bacteria were identified morphologically to be of the iron oxidizing bacterial genera Gallionella and Leptothrix. This is the first known report of disease in fish associated with iron‐oxidizing bacteria.
Iron‐oxidizing bacteria (FeOB) are unique organisms that can flourish in settings of low oxygen, mild acidity, and high Fe2+. They produce orange biofilms containing iron‐oxide hydrates.
FeOB colonized a groundwater well that supported a Colorado trout hatchery.
The bacteria formed dense iron‐rich mats in the tanks and orobranchial chambers and were associated with severe proliferative branchitis and high morbidity and mortality.
This is the first report of morbidity and mortality in fish associated with FeOB.
Elimination of FeOB from contaminated systems can be very challenging; management strategies are discussed.
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The emergence of Zika virus (ZIKV) in the New World has led to more than 200,000 human infections. Perinatal infection can cause severe neurological complications, including fetal and neonatal ...microcephaly, and in adults there is an association with Guillain-Barré syndrome (GBS). ZIKV is transmitted to humans by Aedes sp. mosquitoes, yet little is known about its enzootic cycle in which transmission is thought to occur between arboreal Aedes sp. mosquitos and non-human primates. In the 1950s and '60s, several bat species were shown to be naturally and experimentally susceptible to ZIKV with acute viremia and seroconversion, and some developed neurological disease with viral antigen detected in the brain. Because of ZIKV emergence in the Americas, we sought to determine susceptibility of Jamaican fruit bats (Artibeus jamaicensis), one of the most common bats in the New World. Bats were inoculated with ZIKV PRVABC59 but did not show signs of disease. Bats held to 28 days post-inoculation (PI) had detectable antibody by ELISA and viral RNA was detected by qRT-PCR in the brain, saliva and urine in some of the bats. Immunoreactivity using polyclonal anti-ZIKV antibody was detected in testes, brain, lung and salivary glands plus scrotal skin. Tropism for mononuclear cells, including macrophages/microglia and fibroblasts, was seen in the aforementioned organs in addition to testicular Leydig cells. The virus likely localized to the brain via infection of Iba1+ macrophage/microglial cells. Jamaican fruit bats, therefore, may be a useful animal model for the study of ZIKV infection. This work also raises the possibility that bats may have a role in Zika virus ecology in endemic regions, and that ZIKV may pose a wildlife disease threat to bat populations.
Tacaribe virus (TCRV) was isolated in the 1950s from artibeus bats captured on the island of Trinidad. The initial characterization of TCRV suggested that artibeus bats were natural reservoir hosts. ...However, nearly 60 years later experimental infections of Jamaican fruit bats (Artibeus jamaicensis) resulted in fatal disease or clearance, suggesting artibeus bats may not be a reservoir host. To further evaluate the TCRV reservoir host status of artibeus bats, we captured bats of six species in Trinidad for evidence of infection. Bats of all four fruigivorous species captured had antibodies to TCRV nucleocapsid, whereas none of the insectivore or nectarivore species did. Many flat-faced fruit-eating bats (A. planirostris) and great fruit-eating bats (A. literatus) were seropositive by ELISA and western blot to TCRV nucleocapsid antigen, as were two of four Seba's fruit bats (Carollia perspicillata) and two of three yellow-shouldered fruit bats (Sturnira lilium). Serum neutralization tests failed to detect neutralizing antibodies to TCRV from these bats. TCRV RNA was not detected in lung tissues or lung homogenates inoculated onto Vero cells. These data indicate that TCRV or a similar arenavirus continues to circulate among fruit bats of Trinidad but there was no evidence of persistent infection, suggesting artibeus bats are not reservoir hosts.
Order Chiroptera is oft incriminated for their capacity to serve as reservoirs for many high profile human pathogens, including Ebola virus, Marburg virus, severe acute respiratory syndrome ...coronavirus, Nipah virus and Hendra virus. Additionally, bats are postulated to be the original hosts for such virus families and subfamilies as Paramyxoviridae and Coronavirinae. Given the perceived risk bats may impart upon public health, numerous explorations have been done to delineate if in fact bats do host more viruses than other animal species, such as rodents, and to ascertain what is unique about bats to allow them to maintain commensal relationships with zoonotic pathogens and allow for spillover. Of particular interest is data that demonstrate type I interferons (IFN), a first line defense to invading viruses, may be constitutively expressed in bats. The constant expression of type I IFNs would hamper viral infection as soon as viral invasion occurred, thereby limiting viral spread and disease. Another immunophysiological trait that may facilitate the ability to harbor viruses is a lack of somatic hypermutation and affinity maturation, which would decrease antibody affinity and neutralizing antibody titers, possibly facilitating viral persistence. In 2009 and 2010 two novel influenza A viruses (IAV) were discovered via qRT-PCR using pan-influenza primers in New World bat species. Given the unique hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) glycoproteins compared to those already recognized, the two viruses were classified as H17N10 and H18N11. H17N10 IAV genome was discovered in rectal swabs collected from little yellow-shouldered bats in Guatemala, and H18N11 IAV genome was discovered in a rectal swab and gastrointestinal tract of a flat-faced fruit bat from Peru. The entire sequences for both viruses were identified using next generation and Sanger sequencing, but the virus was never isolated from wild bat populations. Both viruses differ from canonical IAVs in that the HA does not bind to the host sialic acid receptor and the function of NA remains undetermined. Given the divergence from other IAVs, the attention bats receive as reservoir hosts, and the lack of isolation of wild virus, H17N10 and H18N11 remain shrouded in mystery. Reverse genetics was used to rescue both viruses and we performed experimental infections in Jamaican fruit bats (Artibeus jamaicensis), drawing upon the colony housed at Colorado State University. Evidence for H17N10 infection could not be elicited after inoculation, and thus it was concluded that Jamaican fruit bats may not be susceptible. Bats inoculated with H18N11 seroconverted (determined by ELISA), had viral RNA detected in rectal but not oral swabs by qRT-PCR, and had viral RNA present in the length of the gastrointestinal tract detected by qRT-PCR. Hematoxylin and eosin stain used to characterize histopathology revealed minimal pathology that was predominately localized to the gastrointestinal tract in the form of neutrophilic, plasmacytic and lymphocytic cellular infiltration. Furthermore, two naïve transmission bats were exposed to inoculated bats and demonstrated seroconversion and viral RNA detected in rectal swabs by qRT-PCR. Results demonstrate that Jamaican fruit bats are susceptible to H18N11 and indicate transmission occurs fecal-orally. Tissue tropism is for the gastrointestinal tract. These data recapitulate transmission and tissue tropism as seen in the reservoir of IAV, water fowl, and low-pathogenic avian influence viruses in gallinaceous birds. However, this does not indicate that bats may be a reservoir for influenza viruses as H18N11 is not known to cause disease in humans and is highly divergent from other IAVs. More likely, this demonstrates an early divergence of H18N11 from other IAVs and a long-lived co-evolution between the host and the virus. Further investigation of H18N11 may provide information on relationships between bats and their viromes, which is of great importance given so many bat species harbor highly pathogenic zoonotic viruses. The impact of Zika virus (ZIKV) on the New World has been great—infecting more than 200,000 people and manifesting in some patients as severe neurological complications including microcephaly in infected fetuses and Guillain-Barré syndrome. An enzootic cycle is implicated as an important part of viral ecology, yet little is known about this cycle. Historically, different bat species demonstrated experimental susceptibility to ZIKV as they seroconvert, have neurological disease, viremia and ZIKV positive tissues. Jamaican fruit bats are endemic to a region that temporally overlaps with the distribution of ZIKV in the Americas and Caribbean. We sought to identify if these bats were susceptible to ZIKV and conducted a time course study to delineate progression of viral infection and pathophysiology. ELISAs were used to identify seroconversion. Quantitative RT-PCR and immunohistochemistry were used to determine tissue tropism, and hematoxylin and eosin stain was used to characterize histopathology. (Abstract shortened by ProQuest.)
Abstract As coyotes (Canis latrans) adapt to living in urban environments, the opportunity for cross-species transmission of pathogens may increase. We investigated the prevalence of antibodies to ...pathogens that are either zoonotic or affect multiple animal species in urban coyotes in the Denver metropolitan area, Colorado, USA, in 2012. We assayed for antibodies to canine parvovirus-2, canine distemper virus, rabies virus, Toxoplasma gondii, Yersinia pestis, and serotypes of Leptospira interrogans. Overall, 84% of the animals had antibodies to canine parvovirus-2, 44% for canine distemper virus, 20% for T. gondii (IgG), 28% for Y. pestis, and 4% for L. interrogans serotype Grippotyphosa. No neutralizing antibodies were detected to rabies virus, T. gondii (IgM), or L. interrogans serotypes other than Grippotyphosa. With 88% of animals exposed to at least one pathogen, our results suggest that coyotes may serve as important reservoirs and sentinels for etiologic agents.
The emergence of Zika virus (ZIKV) in the New World has led to more than 200,000 human infections. Perinatal infection can cause severe neurological complications, including fetal and neonatal ...microcephaly, and in adults there is an association with Guillain-Barré syndrome (GBS). ZIKV is transmitted to humans by Aedes sp. mosquitoes, yet little is known about its enzootic cycle in which transmission is thought to occur between arboreal Aedes sp. mosquitos and non-human primates. In the 1950s and '60s, several bat species were shown to be naturally and experimentally susceptible to ZIKV with acute viremia and seroconversion, and some developed neurological disease with viral antigen detected in the brain. Because of ZIKV emergence in the Americas, we sought to determine susceptibility of Jamaican fruit bats (Artibeus jamaicensis), one of the most common bats in the New World. Bats were inoculated with ZIKV PRVABC59 but did not show signs of disease. Bats held to 28 days post-inoculation (PI) had detectable antibody by ELISA and viral RNA was detected by qRT-PCR in the brain, saliva and urine in some of the bats. Immunoreactivity using polyclonal anti-ZIKV antibody was detected in testes, brain, lung and salivary glands plus scrotal skin. Tropism for mononuclear cells, including macrophages/microglia and fibroblasts, was seen in the aforementioned organs in addition to testicular Leydig cells. The virus likely localized to the brain via infection of Iba1.sup.+ macrophage/microglial cells. Jamaican fruit bats, therefore, may be a useful animal model for the study of ZIKV infection. This work also raises the possibility that bats may have a role in Zika virus ecology in endemic regions, and that ZIKV may pose a wildlife disease threat to bat populations.
Jamaican fruit bats (Artibeus jamaicensis) are used as an animal model for several viruses, including Middle East respiratory syndrome virus, dengue virus, Zika virus, and Tacaribe virus. However, ...despite ongoing studies regarding these pathogens, little is known regarding the
bats' normal physiology. In this study, phlebotomy of the propetagial (cephalic) vein was performed to establish baseline hematologic parameters in an apparently healthy, captive population of Jamaican fruit bats. Furthermore, we compared results from physically restrained and isoflurane-anesthetized
bats. Our findings indicate significant increases in WBC count, lymphocytes, and monocytes in the anesthetized bats. However, RBC and platelet parameters were not different between the 2 groups. This information on the normal hematologic parameters of Jamaican fruit bats, adds to our overall
understanding of the normal physiology of this species, and expands our knowledge on bat species in general.
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